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Protected Areas
Mutasim Bashir - Frazer Tong
1. Introduction
Sudan exhibits a diversity of soils and the water resources, mainly from the Nile, which extends 2258km from the South to the North. Rainfall varies from 0 in the North to 1200mm per annum in the South. The diversity in climate and soils results in rich biodiversity. The diversity in wildlife species is, therefore, due to a wide variety of ecosystems and vegetation types found in the Sudan. Setzer (1956) reported 224 species and subspecies of mammals (excluding bats), belonging to 91 genera. It is worth mentioning that out of 13 mammalian orders found in Africa, 12 orders occur in the Sudan. There is also a variety of bird species. Macdonald (1955) reported on the distribution of 871 species of birds in the Sudan. Nicolaus (1987) produced the distribution atlas of Sudan's bird with notes on habitat and status and included information on 931 species. There is little information on amphibians and reptiles.
2. Protected Areas in the Sudan
There are about 26 areas that are gazetted and declared by the state as protected areas and equal number of areas have been proposed as protected areas. Tables 1-5 respectively show the distribution of protected areas over the ecological zones of the Sudan. These protected areas include national parks, game reserves, game Sanctuaries and proposed protected areas.
Some of these protected areas were gazetted as far back as 1935, while others were recently established such as Wadi Howar National Park in 2002 and Jebel Hassania in 2003 (Fig. 1).
Growing concern about the status of many protected areas has led to increased interest in effectiveness of the protected areas system and calls for more frequent assessment and revision to assure that protected areas continue to preserve the values for which they were created. Although we have limited information on the status of protected areas in the Sudan, increasing evidence suggest that many are under pressure or are actually experiencing degradation and subsequent loss of biodiversity. The Sudan has made a tremendous effort to establish significant number of protected areas covering more than 10% of the total area of the country. These areas have played a significant role in safeguarding the countries biodiversity, sustaining ecosystem process, and contributing to livelihood of rural communities. Unfortunately, Sudanese protected areas now face increased threats associated with pressures form land use changes in adjacent areas, effects of large scale biophysical changes, inadequate institutional capacity, and enormous financial shortfall in protected areas management agencies and specific protected areas sites. Nevertheless the Sudanese government have continued to demonstrate commitment to Wildlife Conservation (in general) as reflected by the Khartoum Declaration which was signed by the president in 2002 expressing commitment towards wildlife conservation, and was also demonstrated by the presidential declaration of two protected areas in Jebel Hassania and Wadi Howar in 2002 and 2003. The government has continued to demonstrate commitment to protected areas and biodiversity conservation through support to all major international conventions. However Conservation status in all "Protected areas" of Northern Sudan is considered unsatisfactory.
Table 1 : Distribution of Protected Areas Over Ecological
Zones in the Sudan
Ecological Zone / National Parks / Game Reserves / Game SanctuariesDesert / Wadi Howar N.P / None / None
Semi-desert and Marine / Senaneb Marine
N.P.
Jebel Hassania / Tokar
Sabaloks
Savannah / Dinder N.P
Radom N.P
Southern N.P
Nimule N.P
Boma N.P / Chilkon
Achana
Nemutina
Juba
Kidepo / None
Flood Plain / Badingulo N.P
Shambe N.P / None
Rain Forest / None / None
Mountain / None / None / None
Total / 11 / 12 / 3
Source: Wildlife General Administration
Table 2 List of National Parks in the Sudan
Name / Establish Date / Area (hectares) / Ecological ZoneDinder Area Increased / 1935
1982 / 890 000
1029 100 / Savannah
Southern N. Park / 1939 / 2 300 000 / Savannah
Radom N. Park / 1983
1980 / 1 250 000 / Savannah
Nimule N. Park / 1945 / 41 000 / Savannah
Boma N. Park / 1986 / 2 280 000 / Savannah
Badingulo N. Park / 1986 / 1 650 000 / Flood Plain
Shambe N. Park / 1985 / 62 000 / Flood Region
Senganeb Marine N.Park / 1990 / 26 000 / Semi-desert
Wadi Howar N. Park / 2002 / 10, 000, 000 / Desert
Jebel Hassania N. Park / 2003 / - / Semi-desert
Source: The Wildlife General Administration
Table 3: List of Game Sanctuaries in the Sudan
Name / Establieh Date / Area (hectares) / Ecological ZoneArkawit-Sinkat / 1939 / 12 000 / Semi-desert
Arkawit / 1939 / 82 000 / Semi-desert
Khartoum – Sunt Forest / 1939 / 1 500 / Semi-desert
Source: The Wildlife General Administration
Table 4: List of Game Reserves in the Sudan *
Name / Establieh Date / Area (hectares) / Ecological ZoneAchana / 1939 / 90 000 / Savannah
Bengangai / 1939 / 17 000 / Rain Forest
Chilkou / 1939 / 500 000 / Savannah
Faugikang / 1939 / 48 000 / Flood Plain
Juba / 1939 / 20 000 / Savannah
Zeraf Island / 1939 / 970 000 / Flooded Region
Toker / 1939 / 630 003 / Semi-Arid
Sabeloka / 1939 / 116 000 / Semi-desert
Mbarizunga / 1939 / 1 000 / Rain Forest
Bire Kpatues / 1939 / 550 000 / Rain Forest
Kidepo / 1939 / 120 000 / Savannah
Namutina / 1939 / 210 000 / Savannah
Source: The Wildlife General Administration
* Status of conservation in Several of these areas is questionable
Table 5: Proposed Protected Areas in the Sudan
Proposed Site / Area (hectares)Khashm Al Girba Dam BS / 10 000
Lake Abiad BS / 500 000
Lak Kailak BS / 3 000
Lake Kundi BS / 2 000
Lake Nuba BS / 10 000
Sennar Dam BS / 8 000
Abroch GR / 150 000
Boro GR / 150 000
Machar GR / 450 000
Mukawar MNR / 12 000
Port sudan MNP / 100 000
Lantoto N.P / 76 000
Suakin Arcipelago N.P / 150 000
Imatong Mountains NCA / 100 000
Jeel Elba NCA / 480 000
Jebel Mara Massif NCA / 150 000
Lake Ambadi NCA / 150 000
LAk Noch NCA / 100 000
El Rosieries Dam BS / 70 000
Jebel Aulia Dam BS / 100 000
Jebel Hassania / -
Jebel Gwge Massif GR / 10 000
Red Hills GR / 15 000
Source: The Wildlife General Administration
3. The Wildlife Act. (1986)
The Wildlife Animals Ordinance of 1935 was the beginning for establishing protected areas in the Sudan. Part III of this Ordinance enables the Minister responsible for Wildlife resources to establish national parks and reserves. The present Wildlife Act (1935) updated 1986 serves as the main legal code for Wildlife conservation and Management. The law enforcement is practiced through anti poaching unit that is responsible for patrolling the wildlife areas. This unit is poorly equipped and therefore its performance is not effective.
The Wildlife Act of 1986 prohibits hunting in national park and game reserves and hunting may be permitted in game reserves only under the authority of a special permit issued by the Director of the Wildlife administration. It also prohibits residence, cultivation, grazing of domestic animals and felling of trees in national parks and game reserves. Any other human activities within protected areas are prohibited by Wildlife Act.
The Wildlife Ordinance has been criticized in several areas. For instance, it lacks a clear cut distinction between a game reserve and a game sanctuary. Although the Wildlife Administration has drafted new wildlife legislation, it has not yet been completed for ratification. The IUCN categories of protected areas will be included in the new legislation.
The Government of the Sudan has shown a strong commitment to wildlife conservation and protected areas as reflected in signing several international and regional agreements such as the African Convention, the MAB and World Heritage Sites Conventions and the Biodiversity Convention. The total area of the protected areas amounts to about 10% of the total area of the Sudan. The National comprehensive Strategy 1992-2002 stated that protected area (Forest and Wildlife) should be increased to 25% of the area of the Sudan.
4. Conservation Status Of Protected Areas
Most of the protected areas exist on paper. Darling (1961) noted that the reserve system, as a whole, had been inadequately staffed. Hashim and Nimir (1978) made the same remarks that the Wildlife administration had done very little to enforce conservation in protected areas. They also stated that all protected areas in the Sudan have experienced serious deterioration in the densities and numbers of wild animals and their habitats. This is specially true for protected areas in Southern Sudan where the civil war had serious impact on the Wildlife resources.
All protected areas in the Sudan, are without "management plans", except two national parks. Although Southern National Park had a management plan, it was not implemented because of the outbreak of the last civil war. A management plan for Dinder National Park has been endorsed by the Wildlife General Administration but its implementation is interrupted due to lack of funds. Despite the fact that both Dinder and Radom National Parks have been declared as "Biosphere Reserves" in 1979 and 1982 respectively, no measures have been taken to implement the relevant MAB concepts.
4.1. Status of Protected areas in Northern Sudan:
The Dinder National Park DNP is confronted with several threatening problems such as trespassing livestock, poaching , increased human settlements in surrounding areas. These problems arise primarily from other conflicting land use practices, and hence can only be addressed in the context of an overall land use plan for the whole region. GEF – UNDP project 2000 – 2005 succeeded in developing a management plan for DNP involving all stakeholder adopting the biosphere reserve model. All three-surrounding states were convinced to revise the land use in areas around the park. Unfortunately the DNP Project is not operating now due to termination of the project 15 months before its planned end. Raising funds for the 5 years action plan to implement the management plan, and land use planning in surrounding states to cater mainly for the pastoralists problem are the major tasks to be conducted to follow up on conservation measures initiated by Dinder Project. Consolidation measures of the successful measures taken by Dinder Project in establishment of Village Development Committee is also recommended.
The second most important wildlife area in Northern Sudan is Radom National Park (RNP) which is located in Southern Darfur State bordering on the West Sudan – Central Africa Republic international border and on the South the boundary between the states of Southern Darfur and Bahr El Ghazal. RNP covers on area of 11344 sq.km of woodland savanna on clay plains with scattered hills and rock out-crops. The RNP is intersected by a network of streams of which Adda, Umbelasha and Rikki are the most important. The RNP was established in 1980 and was declared as a biosphere reserve to protect a rich variety of wildlife including: elephant, giraffe giant eland, korrigum Damaliscus Lunatus Korrigum, waterbuck, kob buffalo, reedbuck, hippopotamus, hyaena, lion, leopard, wild dog, monkeys and a rich variety of birds.
The RNP was subjected to serious degradation due to trespassing of livestock, illegal settlements and poaching following the drought trends which affected Darfur during the 1980s and 1990s and the civil war which followed. Wildlife in RNP has been severely affected. Elephant, giant eland, korrigum, giraffe and hippopotamus are no longer observed in RNP and numbers of other species are declining.
Senganeb Marine Park was established in 1990 while the Dungunab or Mukawr Marine Park was established in 2004. Management plans were developed for the two parks by PERSIGA, however implementation of management plan will require serious capacity building for the Wildlife Administration as it lacks experience in managing of marine ecosystems.
The two desert national parks established through presidential decrees in Jebel Hassania in the Nile State and Wadi Howar in Northern Darfur, Northern Kordofan and Northern State will require development and implementation of management plan.
Game reserves and game sanctuaries lacked serious protective measures for their wildlife or habitats. These areas were not subjected to regular patrolling, monitoring or assessment. Due to WCGA these areas were considered as low priorities and the meager resources allocated to the department were directed to Dinder and Radom parks. The Rahad Game Reserve RGC which was mainly established to act as a buffer area for DNP was degazetted in 1994 in response to the lobby by Farmers Union of Gedarif State who claimed that there were no wild animals left in RGR and the government agreed to their demand and allocated about 40% of the area of RGR to mechanized rain-fed farming, and the reset of the area was divide between the forestry corporation, the wildlife and range and pasture administrations.
The Sabaloka Game Reserve had lost the Barbary sheep which was the main species it was established to protect and most of its vegetation was subjected to overgrazing. Similarly Tokar Game Reserve lost most of its Wildlife. The Sanctuaries are not better than the reserves. They are hardly patrolled and no permanent staff was present in any of them. Today the Khartoum Bird's Sanctuary is being threatened with the development of high rise urban centres, roads and bridges.