6th Inter-Regional Conference on Environment-Water
Land and Water Use Planning and Management
Albacete, Spain, 3-5 September 2003
Irrigation and Water Resources in the Mediterranean
A Strategic Action Plan for R&D
De Wrachien D(*)
Abstract
The combined effect of almost continuous crop water demand and natural precipitations, which are irregularly distributed both in space and time, makes irrigation essential in order to increase and stabilize agricultural production in the Mediterranean environment. In the region the prospect of expanding the gross irrigated area is limited by the dwindling number of economically attractive sites for large irrigation projects. Therefore the required increase in agricultural production will necessarily rely, largely, on a more accurate estimation of crop water requirements on the one hand, and on major improvements in the operation, management and performance of existing irrigation and drainage systems, on the other.
All this requires, among others, enhanced research and a variety of tools such as remote sensing, geographic information systems and models, as well as field survey and evaluation techniques. These tools have to be considered adopting a broad and integrated approach that embraces food and agricultural commodity production, water saving, resource conservation, environmental impacts and social-economic effects. This approach makes up and outlines the body of a Strategic Action Plan, a crucial procedure for implementing priority actions at both national and local levels. The Plan is expected to bring forth clear benefits in environmental and economic terms, a more sustainable use of land and water resources in irrigated agriculture and higher yields and incomes. An example of a Strategic Action Plan can be found in the GRUSI (Group of Studies on Irrigation) project, a broad based Italian Research program which stated in the 1950s and still continues today.
With reference to these issues, the paper describes the main features and characteristics of the GRUSI project, stresses the evolution of the prevailing trends and proposes a new approach based on a collaboration with other national and international Organizations involved in irrigation R&D, able to reinforce a sustainable development in the region, balancing environmental, economic and social concerns.
(*)EurAgEng President and Chairman Field of Interest on Soil and Water
Director Department of Hydraulics Agricultural State University of Milan, Italy
Tel.: +39 02 50316902; e-mail:
1. Introduction
Land and water resources development is concerned with the planning, use and management of natural resources, primarily for agricultural purposes. To this end, the combined effect of almost continuous crop water demand and rainfall irregularly distributed over space and time, makes irrigation essential for increasing and stabilizing agricultural production in arid, as well as semi-arid and semi-humid regions. Due to the limited, and in many cases the depletion and deteriorating quality of water resources, the need to assure an adequate and stable crop production has led to a more efficient and rational use of irrigation water.
To achieve these goals massive investments have been made over the last few decades by governments and individuals as well as a concerted effort by the international community. Different scenarios have been developed to explore a number of issues, such as the expansion of irrigated agriculture, massive increases in food production from rainfed lands, water productivity trends and public acceptance of genetically modified crops. Opinions differ among the experts as to some of the above issues. However, there is broad consensus that irrigation can contribute substantially to increasing food production. At the 1996 World Food Summit it was estimated that 60% of future food needs would have to be met by irrigated agriculture. The International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) forecasts that present food production will double within the next 25 years (Plusquellec, 2002).
The prospect of expanding the gross irrigated area is limited by the dwindling number of economically attractive sites for new large irrigation and drainage projects. Therefore, the increase in irrigated agriculture will have to come for a substantial part, on the one hand from a more accurate estimation of crop water requirements and, on the other from substantial improvements in the operation, management and control of the existing systems.
The key reason for the failure of the present schemes and the inability to sustainably exploit soil and water resources is poor planning, design, system management and development. This can be attributed partly to the incapability of planners, engineers and managers to adequately quantify the effects of their interventions in soil and water resource systems and to incorporate them into guidelines for improving technology and design and enhancing management.
To fully exploit the benefits of investments made in irrigated agriculture a major effort is needed to develop appropriate technology for improving the use and management of soil and water and for maintaining biodiversity, while conserving and protecting the environment. In this regard, a new integrated and holistic approach to irrigation and drainage management and monitoring is needed, to increase food production, to conserve water, to prevent soil salinization and waterlogging and to protect the environment and ecology. All this requires enhanced research, technological innovation and a large variety of tools, such as automated equipment for water control and regulation, sensors, remote sensing, geographic information systems, decision support systems and models, as well as field surveys and evaluation procedures.
With regard to the above issues, the on-going GRUSI (Italian Irrigation Research Group) project, which commenced in the 1950’s and involves the Italian scientific and professional community, can be considered an important step towards launching an internationally supported program for enhancing R&D in irrigation science and technology in the Mediterranean region (De Wrachien et al., 2002).
With regard to the above issues, the paper first describes the salient aspects of irrigated agriculture in the Mediterranean region. Then the main results of the GRUSI project are outlined. Finally, the importance of institutional strengthening, sound financial and managerial frameworks, availability of human resources involved, research thrust, technology transfer and networking improvement are examined
2. Agriculture in the Mediterranean Environment: Development and Sustainability
2.1 Agriculture and Land Use
Land use and distribution of agricultural land in the Mediterranean basin are illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Table 1, there are major differences in land use patterns from one country to another, mainly between the Southern and the other Mediterranean regions.
Because of the current climate patterns and intensification of human activities Mediterranean countries are already faced with a real threat of land degradation and desertification and there is no doubt that the present enhanced greenhouse effect will only exacerbate this threat in the short term. The main causes of these processes can be
Fig. 1. Distribution of agricultural land in the Mediterranean countries. FAO (1993a)
summarized as follows (Chisci, 1993):
Ø change of agricultural systems towards specialized – mechanized hill farming;
Ø modification of morpho – structural and infrastructural features of the cultural landscape concerned;
Ø abandoned, previously cultivated, fields and/or farms and their man-made structural and infrastructural elements;
Ø increase in forest and pasture fires.
Region / Annual crops % / Permanent crops % / Permanent pastures %North / 57.55 / 10.90 / 30.89
South / 38.60 / 6.40 / 55.0
East / 56.50 / 20.50 / 22.75
Average / 50.88 / 12.60 / 36.22
Table 1. Land use as percentage of cultivated area in the Mediterranean. Source: Hamdy and Lacirignola (1997)
Until the early seventies, the problem of land degradation due to erosion was considered of minor importance for most of the countries of the Mediterranean region (Chisci and Morgan, 1986), in that traditional agricultural systems had proven effective in keeping those processes under control. Consequently, low priority was given to research programs and projects on soil erosion and conservation, higher priority being assigned, among others, to the impact of farm machinery on soil structure and the role of organic matter in the soil.
In the eighties and early nineties, global warming and the impact of the agricultural systems introduced in the sloping lands of the Mediterranean environment in the previous decades were identified as the main culprits of soil erosion and land degradation. Accelerated runoff and erosion, previously unreported, began to be observed in cultivated sloping areas. The unprecedented pressure to increase crop productivity at lower costs, made possible by the technological revolution in agricultural management, had led to soil erosion in the agricultural ecosystem, due to hydrological impact, resulting in severe deterioration in soil fertility and degradation of the landscape.
After having thoroughly examined the problem, the scientific community concluded that a more detailed evaluation of the situation in the different Mediterranean environments was needed. Furthermore, it was recognized that research activities were too fragmentary to be able to cope with the demand for sound soil conservation measures. Another recommendation that emerged was the use of pilot areas for a quantitative assessment of accelerated erosion and of the effects of new conservation measures in the water erosion prone areas of the Mediterranean. It was also suggested that projects be allowed more flexibility, so that programs could be modified during implementation, to benefit from experience gained and lessons learned.
2.2 Agriculture and Water Use
In the Mediterranean region nearly 70% of the available water resources are allocated to agriculture. In the arid and semi-arid countries of the region agricultural water use accounts for as much as 80% of the water consumed, decreasing to 50% of the total available resources in the Northern countries (Hamdy and Lacirignola, 1997).
Diminishing water resources in the Eastern and Southern Mediterranean are expected to be one of the main factors limiting agricultural development, particularly in the 2000 – 2025 period. The water needed for irrigation is even scarcer than the land itself and land suitable for irrigation is becoming harder to find. At present, the irrigated areas account for more than 16 million hectares.
Despite the high priority and massive resources invested, the performance of large public irrigation systems has fallen short of expectations in both the developing and developed countries of the Mediterranean. Crop yield and efficiency in water use are typically less than originally projected and less than reasonably achieved. In addition, the mismanaged irrigation project schemes lead to the “sterilization” of some of the best and most productive soils. Salinity now seriously affects productivity in the majority of the Southern Mediterranean countries as well as in the coastal zones. Salt affected soils in the region amount to nearly 15% of the irrigated lands.
Given the increased costs of new irrigation developments, together with the scarcity of land and water resources, future emphasis will be more on making efficient use of water for irrigation and less on indiscriminate expansion of the irrigated area..
Over the next twenty five years, substantial amounts of fresh water supplies will be diverted from agriculture to industry and households in the region. Irrigated agriculture will face two challenges: water scarcity and dwindling financial resources. Despite these challenges, irrigated agriculture is expected to provide 70 to 75 percent of the additional food grain requirements to the developing countries of the region. This will not be possible without developing effective methodologies and systems for assessing and improving the performance of irrigated agriculture. Such systems have to evaluate the contribution and impact of an irrigation scheme in terms of production, self-reliance, employment, poverty alleviation, financial viability, farmers’ profitability and environmental sustainability.
2.3 Agriculture: Constraints and the Strategic Action Plan
The contribution expected from agriculture can not be achieved if constraints in irrigation and drainage systems and in agronomic practices are not adequately addressed. In many cases technological problems and their adverse impacts on the environment are increasing because solutions have not been found or proven effective or because maintenance has been neglected and modernization deferred. Moreover, modifications of natural ecosystems by irrigation and drainage networks have brought about environmental changes commonly leading, as previously mentioned, to reduction in water availability, waterlogging, salinization hazard and the spread of aquatic weeds. In this regard, the main constraints inhibiting the development of irrigated agriculture in the Mediterranean region demanding urgent attention are (Hamdy and De Wrachien, 1999):
Ø shortage of funds and substantial delays in their allocation;
Ø lack of professional and technical manpower and training facilities and equipment;
Ø lack of knowledge and research to develop new technologies and approaches and absence of incentives to adopt them;
Ø institutional weakness and lack of coordination between governmental and private bodies;
Ø lack of appropriate and consistent policies for land and water development.
These constraints tackle the root cause of the major problems encountered in irrigated agriculture development. To overcome these hurdles suitable solutions must be devised and translated into actions through the formulation of programs which should take into account the actual conditions of the environment where they are expected to be implemented. (De Wrachien, 2001).
These programs should include:
Ø the adoption of a comprehensive approach that integrates land and water use and management and environmental issues;
Ø the promotion of regional cooperation to ensure that the concerns of all parties are factored into decisions;
Ø the recognition of the linkages between different land uses and water resources availability (quantity and quality);
Ø the promotion of a broad base networking system involving governments, professional and research institutions and non-governmental organizations;
Ø the endorsement of a phased program of actions at both the local and national levels.
This approach forms the basis for a Strategic Action Plan, which is crucial to implementing priority actions. The objectives of the Strategic Action Plan are to:
Ø evaluate trends;
Ø assess causes and implications;
Ø provide an estimate of investment costs;
Ø establish a framework for monitoring and assessment;
Ø identify priority actions to address key issues.
An example of a Strategic Action Plan can be found in the GRUSI (Irrigation Research Group) project, a broad based Italian research program which was launched in the 1950s and still continues today.
3. The GRUSI Project