Publication#2008-24
…informationforpractitionersonhowtouseyouthgovernancetoinvolve“at-risk”youthinout-of-schooltime.
June2008
YOUTHGOVERNANCE:HOWANDWHYITCANHELPOUT-OF-SCHOOLTIMEPROGRAMS INVOLVEAT-RISKYOUTH
LillianBowie,M.A.,andJacintaBronte-Tinkew,Ph.D.
BACKGROUND
Out-of-schooltimeprogramsprovideinterventionandpreventionservicestoyoungpeoplewhoaredeemed“at-risk”withthegoalofimprovingtheirsocial,emotional,andacademicdevelopment.aHowever,researchindicatesthatchildrenandyouthwhoaremost“at-risk”arelesslikelytoparticipateinout-of-schooltimeprograms,anddosolessregularlythanothers.12
Giventhispattern,programstaffmembersneedtobecreativeintheireffortstorecruit,engage,andretainat-riskchildrenandyouthinprograms.Implementingayouthingovernancemodelcanbeaneffectivestrategyforinvolvingtheseyoungpeople.Thisbriefdefinesyouthgovernance
andbrieflydiscussesthebenefitsofinvolvingat-riskchildrenandyouthinout-of-schooltimeprogramgovernance.Italsoidentifiesstepsthatout-of-schooltimeprogramsmayconsiderwhenimplementingayouthgovernancemodelandpresentsrecommendationsfordealingwithpotentialchallengestoimplementation.b
WHATISYOUTHGOVERNANCE?
Youthgovernancereferstothepracticeofhavingyoungpeopleworkinpartnershipwithadultstoestablishthepolicies,goals,andactivitiesforaprogram.Thispracticecantaketheshapeofyouthservingonboardsorofyouthtakingonotherdecision-makingroles.3
Youth-adultpartnershipsarefundamentalcomponentsofanyyouthgovernancemodel.Thesecooperativeeffortsbetweenyoungpeopleandadultsarecharacterizedbymutualrespect,communication,andsharingofpower.4
WHYINVOLVEYOUTHINPROGRAM GOVERNANCE?
Researchandprogramexperiencesuggestthatyouthinvolvementinprogramgovernancecanresultinpositiveoutcomesforyouth,adults,andprograms.5
aTheterm“at-risk”hasbeenappliedtochildrenandyouthexperiencingpersonal,familyandcommunitydisadvantages,rangingfromexposuretofamilystress,poverty,physicalabuse,negativeself-perceptions,academicorschoolfailure,teenagepregnancy,juveniledelinquencyandneighborhoodproblems(HarvardFamilyResearchProject,
2007;Moore,2007).
bItis,ofcourse,necessarytoinvolvechildrenandyouthinage-appropriateways.Whileelementaryschool-age
childrenmayhavearoleinprogramdecision-making,thisbrieffocusesonolderchildrenandyouthandhowtheycanbeinvolvedinvariedgovernanceactivities.
Youthinvolvedinprogramgovernanceexperience:
•Lessinvolvementinriskybehaviors,suchasdruguseandjuveniledelinquency;6
•Improvementsinareassuchasteamwork,criticalthinking,decision-making,publicspeakinganddependability;7and
•Increasedself-esteemandimprovedself-identity.8
Adultsworkingwithprogramparticipantsexperience:
•Astrongersenseofcommunityconnectedness;9and
•Agreaterunderstandingofyoungpeopleandtheirdevelopmentalneeds.10
Programsthatinvolveyouthasdecision-makers:
•Gainnewenergyandideas;11
•Becomemoreconnectedandresponsivetotheneedsofyoungpeopleinthecommunity;12
and
•Canmoreeasilyrevisetheiroverallmissiontobetterservechildrenandyouth.13
TIPSFORINVOLVINGYOUTHINPROGRAMGOVERNANCE
Researchsupportsthevalueofyouthleadershipanddecision-makinginprograms.14Researcherstheorizethatinvolvingyoungpeopleinprogramgovernancemaybeoneofthemosteffectivestrategiesforpromotingpositiveyouthdevelopment.However,thepracticeofinvolvingyouthinorganizationalgovernance,particularlyat-riskyouth,canbefrustratingandtime-consumingfor
staff,inadditiontobeinghelpfulandrewarding.Thefollowingtipsmayhelpprograms
successfullyincorporateayouth-in-governancemodelintotheiroperations:
Tip1:Prepareadultsfortheideaofyouthbeinginvolvedinprogramgovernance.
Involvingyouthinprogramgovernancemayrequireanattitudeshiftamongtheadultboard,staff,orcommitteemembers.Itiscommonforadultstoresisttheideaofyoungpeopleasdecision-
makersbecauseofadultstakeholders’loyaltytotheprogram,theirattachmenttoestablishedstructures,andacommitmenttocurrentprocesses.Adultstakeholdersshouldbeinformedthattheirrolesandresponsibilitiesmaychangewhenyoungpeoplehaveavoiceinthedecision-makingprocess.Adultsalsoshouldrecognizethatinvolvingyouthinprogramgovernancewillrequireanongoingnegotiationofideasandresources,15andthatno“setdesign”or“standardformula,”existsforimplementingyouthingovernanceprogram.
TOPUTTHISIDEAINTOPRACTICE:
♦ Hostastaffmeetingoraboardroundtablediscussion.
♦ Providefrontlinestaffwithgeneralinformationaboutadult-youthpartnerships.
♦ Usingaflipchartandmarkers,askfrontlinestafftoughquestionswhichmayinclude:
oWhataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofhavingyouthmoreinvolvedinprogramdesignandimplementation?
oHowwillthismakeyourcurrentpositionlessdemandingormorechallenging?
oHowmuchtimedoyoufeelyoucandedicatetobuildinganinfrastructureto
supportmoreyouthinvolvement?
oWhenandhowmightanorganizationbegintoinvolveyouthingovernance?
♦ Allowallstafftheopportunitytoopenlysharetheiropinionswithoutjudgment.
Tip2:Establish aclearvisionandgoalsforhowandwhyyouthwillbeintegrated.
Itiscriticalthatalladultsunderstandandagreeonthepurposeandgoalsforinvolvingyouthintheirprogram.Acommonmisconceptionthatadultsmayholdisthatyouthwillwanttorunall
thekeyaspectsoftheprogramorproject.However,experiencesuggeststhatyoungpeoplewanttoshareresponsibilitieswithadults,asopposedtodoingeverythingthemselves.16Infact,youngpeoplewelcomeandneedadultparticipationintheformsofcoaching,modelingofbehaviors,andsharingtasks17becausetheyhavelimitedexperienceindesigning,planning,andexecutingprograms.Thissituationisparticularlytrueforat-riskyouth.Toavoidpoorprogramimplementation,adultsshouldestablishastrategicplanforhowyouthwillbebestutilizedand
shoulddeterminehowtheadultswillactivelysupporttheintegrationofyouthintothegovernanceprocess.18Ifgoalsforintegrationareambiguous,thisambiguityislikelytoresultinpoorprogramimplementationandtohaveanegativeimpacttheyoungpeople’sexperienceinthegovernancerole.19
TOPUTTHISIDEAINTOPRACTICE:
♦ Haveprogramstaffidentifygovernancerolesforyouth.
♦ Askprogramstafftodiscussthebenefitsanddisadvantagesofeachoftheseroles.
♦ Asateam,draftaplanthatincorporatesyouthintherolesdefinedbystaff.
Tip3:Buildtrust andestablishrapportamongyouth.
Engagingat-riskyouthinleadershiprolescanbeachallengingtaskbecausemanyoftheseyoungpeoplehaveexperiencedfewpositiverelationshipswithadults.Asaresult,someyouthwillbeskepticalofadultintentionswhenaskedtoassumegovernanceroles.20Programstaffshouldputtimeandeffortintoestablishingrapportandbuildingtrustwithyouthuponinvitingthemtoparticipate.Thefollowingobservationsaboutbuildingtrustmaybehelpful:
oBepatient:Bepreparedtoempowerandallowyouthtotakeonresponsibilitiesandleadershiproleswithoutexpectingperfection.Itshouldnotbeassumedthat,justbecauseyoungpeoplehavebeenintegratedintoprogramdecision-making,theyhavealloftheskillstoparticipatefully.Understandthatnewmembers,bothadultsandyouth,willneedtimetoadjust.Rememberthatleadershiplearningoccursevenwhenpeoplemakemistakes.21
oListenanddon’tjudge:Listencarefullyandaskquestionsthatarenon-threateningwhenyoutharespeaking.Itisimportanttotrytounderstandissuesfromayouthperspective.
oBeopenandauthentic:Youthshouldgetthesensethatadultsaregenuineandinterestedinthecontributionstheycanmaketotheprogram.22
TOPUTTHISINTOPRACTICE:
♦ Duringstaffmeetingsorroundtablediscussions,havestaffmemberssharetheirhonestperspectiveoftheirrelationshipswithprogramyouth.
♦ Usingtheflipchart,allowstafftobrainstormwhattheybelieveareeffectivestrategiestobuildtrustwithprogramyouth.
♦ Challengestaffmemberstoreflectonreal-lifeexperienceswheretheyhaveattemptedtoestablishrapportwithyouth,anddiscusswhetherthemethodsusedwereasuccessornot.
♦ Givestaffanopportunitytorole-playthestrategiesasateam.
RESPONDINGTOTHECHALLENGESOFINVOLVING YOUTHINPROGRAMGOVERNANCE
Aswithanynewapproach,challengeswillinevitablyarise.Thedifferencebetweenprogramsthatintegrateyouthingovernanceroleseffectivelyandprogramsthatdonotdependslargelyuponhowpeopledealwiththechallengesthatmayarise.23Drawingonresearchandinsightsfrompractitioners,weoutlinethreecommonchallengesandpresentsuggestionsforovercomingthem.
Challenge1:PowerStrugglesBetweenYouthandAdults.
Itisnotuncommonforadultstohavedifficultyrelinquishingpowertoyoungpeopleduringtheplanninganddecision-makingprocessinvolvedindevelopingayouthingovernancemodel.At
thesametime,youngpeoplemaybeuncomfortabletakingontheresponsibilitythatcomeswiththepower.24Insteadofdenyingdifferencesinobligations,interestsandskillsets,asuccessfulprogramwillbuildonandaccommodatethesedifferences.25Sharingpowercanbeachievedthroughcoaching.Practitionerwisdomindicatesthatoneofthemostdifficultskillsforadultstoacquireisbeingabletocoachyoungpeoplewithoutmakingthemfeelpowerless.Therefore,adultsshouldprovidelegitimateopportunitiesforyoungpeopletoplayameaningfulroleinthepartnership,whilealsoholdingthemaccountable.26
SuggestionsforDealingwithPowerStrugglesBetweenYouthandAdults:
•Adultsshouldactascoaches—offeringproactiveguidancetoyoungpeople—becauseoftheirexperienceandaccesstoinstitutionalpower.27
•Aftersupportingyoungpeopleintakingonnewrolesasdecision-makers,trainers,andorganizers,adultsshouldnotassumethatyoungpeoplewillautomaticallyorconsistentlyunderstandwhatisexpectedofthem.28
•Adultsshouldprovideclear,consistent,andconstructivefeedbackduringpreparationphrasesuntiltheplannedyouthingovernancemodelisimplemented.Programsshouldprovideopportunitiestodiscusspowerissuesopenly.29
Challenge2:“Adultist” Behavior
“Adultist,”arelativelynewtermthatisnotyetusedwidely,referstothesystematicmistreatmentanddisrespectofyoungpeople.Asresearchersusetheterm,itpertainstosubtlebehaviorsandattitudesbasedontheassumptionthatadultsarebetterthanyoungpeople.30Tosuccessfullyengageandempoweryouthinprogramgovernance,adultsshouldavoidadultistbehaviorsandattitudesduringinteractionswithyouth.Thisavoidanceiscriticalbecausemostyouthwouldagreethatduringdisagreementswithadults,thewordofayoungpersonmaynotbetakenoverthatofanadult.Also,someyouthmayfeelthatadultsdonottaketheirconcernsasseriouslyastheywouldtheconcernsofanotheradult.Ifyoungpeoplefeeladultbias,theymaybelessinclinedtospeakupduringdiscussions,andtherebyforgoopportunitiestoengagefullyingovernance.
SuggestionsforDealingwith“Adultist” Behavior:
•Programsshouldestablishguidelinesforhowthegovernanceboardwillmakedecisions.
Theseguidelinesshouldindicatetheroleofadultandyouthcommitteemembers.31
•Whenpossible,youngpeopleandadultsshouldhaveanequalsayinmakingfinaldecisions.32
•Adultsshouldavoidgivingyoungpeopleorderstodothingswithoutexplanation.Atthesametime,programsshouldbewaryofthrustingyoungpeopleintodecision-makingwithouttraining,practice,andanunderstandingoftheirresponsibilities.33
Challenge3:AvoidStereotypesofYouthAbilities
Itisnotunusualforadultstohavestereotypesofyoungpeople(andviceversa).Unfortunately,stereotypesaboutthecompetencelevelsofyoungpeopleoftenleadtoaparadoxicalsituation.As
tworesearchersexpressedthissituation:“Youthareunabletodemonstratetheircompetencedue
tolackofopportunity,andadultsfailtoprovidetheopportunitybecausetheyhavenotyetwitnessedtheyouthcompetence.”34Therefore,whenidentifyingyouthtoparticipateonboardsandtoworkinpartnershipwithadults,itbecomescriticalthatadultsavoidstereotypesofyouthcapabilities.Instead,adultsshouldactascoachesand—insomecases—trainers,inordertoavoidsettingyouthupforfrustration,confusion,andpossiblefailure.35
SuggestionsforOvercomingStereotypes:
•Programsshouldbuildontheindividualstrengthsofyoungpeopleandprovidewaysforthemtogrowinareaswheretheyarenotyetstrong.36
•Adultsshouldrecognizethatcognitiveanddecision-makingskillsamongyouthmayvarybyageandwithinagegroups.
•Programsshouldnotoverlookat-riskyouthforleadershipjustbecauseoftheirinexperience.
Althoughtheseyoungpeoplehaveenjoyedfeweropportunitiestoassumeformalleadershiproles,researchshowsthattheyoftenhaveinnateleadershipskillsthattheyexerciseregularlyjusttosurviveeverydayintheirhomeenvironments.37
INTHESPOTLIGHT
Program:WashingtonEnrichmentandCulturalArtsNetwork(WECAN)
Location: Washington,D.C.
Inthefollowinginterview,JohniceGalloway-Miller,theprogramdirectorforWECAN,describestheorganization’sexperienceswithayouthgovernancemodel.
WhatdoesWECANofferyoungpeople?
TheWashingtonEnrichmentandCulturalArtsNetwork,Inc.("WECAN")operatesReach-One-To-Teach-One,aLiteracyandArts
PrograminWard7oftheDistrictofColumbia.Youthages14through25participateinreading,poetry,writing,math,conflictresolution,dance,visualarts,positiverapmusic,andculturalandrecreationalenrichingactivities.
HowdoesWECANprepareprogramstafffortheadult-youthrelationship?
Duringstafforientation,wereviewWECAN’sorganizationalstandards.Thisreviewincludesgivinganoverviewoftheconceptsand
principlesofyouthdevelopmentbasedontheAdvancingYouthDevelopmentcurriculum.AtleasttwoofWECAN’sfrontlineyouthworkersarerequiredtotakea30-hourcourseinAdvancingYouthDevelopment.WECANalsopreparesitsstaffbydiscussingthebackgroundcharacteristicsoftheyouthpopulationintheprogram.
Whatthingsdoyoudotoinformtheadultsthatyouthwillhaveavitalroleinplanningactivities?
WECANseniorstaffexplainthatagoaloftheprogramisforyouthandadultstodevelopandimplementdecisionscollaboratively.
Thisapproachempowersyouthbutalsoteachesaccountabilityandresponsibilitypendingtheoutcomeoftheactivityorevent.Duringstafforientation,programstaffarebriefedonhowyoungpeople’sideasareincorporatedintothedesignoftheprogram,butarealsotoldhowcriticalitisthattheyremaininvolvedinsupportingtheimplementationoftheactivitiesplannedbyyouth.Everyfiveweeks,WECANseniorstaffsolicitsuggestionsfromfrontlinestaffabouthowtofurtherimprovetheadult-youthpartnershipinplanningfutureprogramactivities.
Whenisthestrategicplanforinvolvingyouthasprogramoractivityleadersdeveloped?
Thestrategicplanisestablishedduringtheproposalpreparationphase.Theplaniscritiquedfurtherduringmanagementmeetingsseveralmonthsbeforetheprogrambeginsandisthenreviewedandmodifiedonanongoingbasis.
Howaredecisionsmadetodeterminehowyouthwillbeinvolvedinplanningactivitiesfortheprogram?
WECAN’sprogramstaffconsiderswhethertheyoungperson’sinvolvementgiveshimorherthechancetoactivelylearnandbuild
skills,andwhethertheactivityprovidesyouthwiththeopportunitytodiscussideasandexpressthemselves.
Whatthingsaredonetoensurethatyouthhaveapositiveexperienceintheleadershiprole?
WECAN’sseniorstaffensuresthatprogramactivitiesandexpectationsarecommunicatedclearlytobothyouthandadults,andthattheadultsarecapableofprovidingthepropersupporttoassistyouthinsuccessfullyexecutingtheactivity.Theprogramdirector
administersregularsatisfactionsurveys,whichprovidevaluableinformationaboutyoungpeople’sexperienceintheprogram.
HowdoesWECANstaffbuildtrustwithyouth?
WECANestablishestrustbylisteningtoyouth’sideas,suggestionsandconcerns,andthendiscussespossiblesolutionstoissueswithoutjudgment.Thisprocessisdonethroughgroupsettingsandone-on-onemeetingswithyouth.Acriticalwaytobuildtrustwith
youngpeopleistolistentowhattheyhavetosayanddemonstratethatprogramstaffvaluestheirinputandopinion.WECAN’sstaff
demonstratespatiencebyaffordingyouthnewresponsibilitiesandcreatingasafeenvironmentwheretheydonotfeelasiftheyneedtobeperfect.Programstaffusethemistakesyoungpeoplemaymakeasopportunitiesforlearning.
Howdoprogramstafflistenandnotjudgeyouth?
Staffmemberslistentoandencourageyoungpeopletocompletetheirthoughtsandthoroughlyexplaintheirsideofastorywithoutlookingfortherightorwrongperspective.Acriticalwaytolearnfromyouth--insteadofpassingjudgment—istoconsidernotjust
“what”youngpeopledo,but“why”youngpeopledocertainthings.
Howdoprogramstaffknowtheyhavegainedthetrustofyouth?
Youthshowtheirtrustinmanydifferentways.Theyopenlysharetheirjournalwritingswithstaff.Theyasktohavediscussionsonsubjectsthattheyareafraidtotalkaboutwiththeirparentsorlegalguardians.Theyadmitwhentheyareatfaultandsharewithstaff
theirmostpersonalandprivatethoughts.
NEXTSTEPS:ADDITIONAL RESOURCESFORYOURPROGRAM
Anumberofnationalorganizationsandprogramsarecurrentlyinvestedinyouth-adultpartnerships.The
followingresourcesmaybeusefulforinvolvingat-riskyouthinout-of-schooltimeprogramgovernanceroles.
National4-HCouncil–The4-HYouthinGovernanceInitiativesupportsyouthparticipationingovernancerolesinprograms,organizations,andcommunities.TheInitiativefocusesontheskillsthatyouthandadultsneedtobeeffectiveingovernance.PeoplecansearchtheYouthinGovernancelibraryreferencesbytype,title,andauthor.
Availableonlineat:
PointsofLightYouthLeadershipInstitute–TheInstituteseekstoprovideyoungpeopletheencouragement,peernetworks,andleadershipskillsnecessaryforthemtomakemeaningfulcontributionstotheircommunitiesandtobeginalifelongjourneyofleadershipandservice.Formoreinformation,visit ThePointsofLightFoundationalsopublishedYouthVoice:AGuideforEngagingYouthinLeadershipandDecision-MakinginService-LearningPrograms.
Availableonlineat:
Community PartnershipswithYouth–CommunityPartnershipswithYouthisanationaltrainingandresourcedevelopmentorganizationwithovertenyearsofexperiencepromotingayouthvoiceinorganizationsandcommunities.Theorganizationhasdevelopedtrainingguidesandofferstrainingprogramsdirectedathelpingyoungpeopleunderstandtheirroleascommunitytrusteesandasimportantparticipantsinprogramgovernance.
Availableonlineat:
YouthLeadershipInstitute(YLI)–YLIseekstobuildcommunitiesinwhichyoungpeopleandtheiradultalliescometogethertocreatepositivesocialchange.YLIdesignsandimplementscommunity-basedprogramsthatprovideyouthwithleadershipskillsintheareasofdrugandalcoholabuseprevention,philanthropy,andcivicengagement.Buildingonthesereal-worldprogramexperiences,YLIcreatescurriculaandtrainingprogramsthatfostersocialchange
efforts,whilepromotingbestpracticesinthefieldofyouthdevelopment.Availableonlineat:
NationalYouthLeadershipCouncil(NYLC)–NYLCprovidestrainingandtechnicalassistancetoprogramsseekingtoimplementyouthleadershipandservice-learningactivities.Itdevelopstrainingsessionstailoredtomeettheneedsoftheclientthatareledbyatleastoneadultinpartnershipwithatleastoneyoungperson.
Availableonlineat:
InnovationCenter forCommunity andYouthDevelopment–Thecentersupportsthebeliefthatyoungpeopleshouldhavearoleinplanningandimplementingcommunityandorganizationalprogramsandpoliciesthataffectthem.Itpromotesyouth-adultpartnershipsandconnectionsandhasdevelopedanumberofresourcestosupportthesepartnershipsbasedonmutualrespect.
Availableonlineat:
REFERENCES
1HarvardFamilyResearchProject.FindingsfromHFRP’sStudyofPredictorsandParticipationinOut-of-SchoolTimeActivities:FactSheet.Retrieved,10September,2007,from
2Moore,K.,andKahn,J.(2008).Familyandneighborhoodrisks:howtheyrelatetoinvolvementinout-of-schooltimeactivities.Washington,D.C.:ChildTrends.
3Mantooth,L.YouthinGovernance:AGuideForAdultsInvolvingYouthasDecisionMakersonBoards
andCommittees.TheUniversityofTennessee.4-HYouthDevelopment.Retrieved,10September,2007,from
4Ibid.
5Mantooth,L.YouthinGovernance:AGuideForAdultsInvolvingYouthasDecisionMakersonBoardsandCommittees.TheUniversityofTennessee.4-HYouthDevelopment.Retrieved,10September,2007,
from
6Bernard,B.(1991).Fosteringresiliencyinkids:ProtectiveFactorsinthefamily,school,andcommunity.Portland,OR:NorthwestRegionalEducationalLaboratory.
7Ibid.
8Ibid.
9Mantooth,L.
10Ibid.
11Ibid.
12Ibid.
13Ibid.
14Justiniano,J.andScherer,C.(2001).YouthVoice:AGuideForEngagingYouthInLeadershipand
Decision-MakinginServiceLearningPrograms.Washington,D.C.:PointsofLightFoundation.Available at
15Zeldin,S.,Petrokubi,J.,MacNeil,C.(2007).Youth-AdultPartnershipsinCommunityDecisionMaking:WhatdoesitTaketoEngageAdultsinthePractice?ChevyChase,MD:National4HCouncilAvailableat:
16Camino,Linda.(2005)Pitfallsandpromisingpracticesofyouth-adultpartnerships:Anevaluator'sreflections.JournalofCommunityPsychology33:1,75
17Ibid.
18Larson,R.,Walker,K.,andPearce,N.(2005).AComparisonofYouth-DrivenandAdult-DrivenYouth
Programs:BalancingInputsfromYouthandAdults.JournalofCommunityPsychology.33:1,57-74.
19Ibid
20InternationalYouthFoundation.May2007.FieldNotes:ReachingOuttoYouthinHigh-risk
Environments.2(8).
21Mantooth,L.
22Ibid
23Camino,Linda.(2005).
24Justinianno,J.,Scherer,C.(2001).
25Zeldin,S.,McDaniel,A.,Topitzes,D.,Calvart,M.(2000).Youthindecision-making:AStudyoftheimpactsonadultsandorganizations.ChevyChase,MD:National4-HCouncil.
26Camino,L.A.(2000).Youth-adultpartnerships:Enteringnewterritoryincommunityworkandresearch.AppliedDevelopmentalScience,4(1),11-20.
27Camino,Linda.(2005)
28Ibid.
29Camino,L.A.(2000).Youth-adultpartnerships:Enteringnewterritoryincommunityworkandresearch.AppliedDevelopmentalScience,4(1),11-20.
30Bell,Jone.UnderstandingAdultist:AKeytoDevelopingPositiveYouth-AdultRelationships.Retrieved,September26,2007,from
31Zeldin,etal.(2005)
32Zeldin,(2004)
33Ibid.
34Zeldin,S.,Camino,L.,andMook,C.(2005).Theadoptionofinnovationinyouthorganizations:
Creatingtheconditionsforyouth-adultpartnerships.JournalofCommunityPsychology33:1,126
35Zeldin,Shepherd.
(2004. YouthasAgentsofAdultandCommunityDevelopment:MappingtheProcessesandOutcomesof
YouthEngagedinOrganizationalGovernance.AppliedDevelopmentalScience8:2,75-90
36Ibid.
37Mantooth,L.YouthinGovernance:AGuideForAdultsInvolvingYouthasDecisionMakersonBoardsandCommittees.TheUniversityofTennessee.4-HYouthDevelopment.Retrieved,10September,2007,from
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