The Vocalic System in OE Included 2 Subsystems: Monophthongs, Diphthongs. All Vowels Existed

Вопрос 24 The OE vowel

The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the modification of separate vowels, and also of the modification of entire sets of vowels. The change begins with growing variation in pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of numerous allophones: after the stage of increased variation, some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes place. It may result in the splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth, which fills in the “empty boxes” of the system or introduces new distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old phonemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together.

The vocalic system in OE included 2 subsystems: monophthongs, diphthongs. All vowels existed in the pairs:ææдолг, a ā, e ē, o ō, i ī , u ū, y y долг (Уготтовнебыло ā, ææдолг, ō)Ввидепарсуществовалиидифтонги:ea eaдолг, eo eoдолг, ie ieдолг.The major factor in OE was a category of quantity vowels. It means, that all OE vowels, including diphthongs, could be both long and short. It it the system of vowels on the beginning of OE. The new system came with Anglo-Saxon tribes (жоанная): In most cases these new processes represent result of influence of the next sounds and called the COMBINATORY CHANGES.

1.Influence of the next consonant–Breaking (diph thongization) Short vowel were diphthong-sed before consonant. The short vowels æие, a. Short vowelsæ andе were diph-nized: æ turn into ea before combinations r + согл, l + согл, h + согл, and before h on the end of a word: wearþ,healp,eahta,seah e.g.: [e] > [eo] in OE deorc, NE dark.

e turn into eo before combinations r + согл, l + velar concordant c and h, before h on the end of a word: weorþan,meolcan,feoh

The essence of breaking consists that front vowel assimilates with the subsequent firm consonants by development of a sound of glide, which forms a diphthong. The glide, together with the original monophthong formed a diphthong.

Palatalization

After the palatal consonants [k’], [sk’] and [j] short and long [e] and [æ] turned into diphthongs with a more front close vowel as their first element, e.g. OE scæmu > sceamu (NE shame). In the resulting diphthong the initial [i] or [e] must have been unstressed but later the stress shifted to the first element, which turned into the nucleus of the diphthong, to conform with the structure of OE diphthongs. This process is known as “diphthongisation after palatal consonants”. It observes in Wessex dialect. æ - ea sceal , cearu. æдолг - ea долг scēāwian, зēāfon.a- ea scacan-sceacan. o-eo sceort, ceort. e - ie scield, зiefan

Contraction –(стяжение) The vowels contracted into 1 when they were separated by h and H disappeared. e+a=eo (sehan – seon. i+a=eo (tihan- teon). a+a=ea (slehan – slean). o+a=o долг(fohan – fon)

Mutation -перегласовка

Mutation is the change of one vowel to another through the influence of a vowel in the succeeding syllable. 2 types: i-Umlaut mutation (palatal mutation) and Back mutation (guttural)-гортанный.

1) i-Umlaut - under its influence vowel moves ahead or narrowed.

æ – e sætjan – settan, a-e talu – tellan, o-e ofost – efstan, ō –ēdōm – dēman, u - y fullian - fyllan , u - ycuþ- cŷþþan. Changes in diphthongs: ea – ie, ea долг – ie долг, eo – ie, eo долг – ie долг.

Back mutation – U-Umlaut it is caused by back vowels (a, o, u). In Wessex dialect take place only before consonants r, l, p, f, m. a-ea saru – searu, i- io hira – hioru, e-eo herot – heorot. The words which begin with wi – mutation occurred without dependence from the subsequent concordant: widu – wiodu

U-umlaut was optiona(facultative) and i-umlaut was the main (системообразующ).

Development of monophthongs

The PG short [a] and the long [a:], which had arisen in West and North Germanic, underwent similar alterations in Early OE: they were fronted, and in the process of fronting, they split into several sounds. The principal regular direction of the change – [a] > [æ] and [a:] > [æ:] – is often referred to as the fronting or palatalisation of [a, a:]. The other directions can be interpreted as positional deviations or restrictions to this trend: short [a] could change to [o] or [ā] and long [a:] became [o:] before a nasal; the preservation of the short [a] was caused by a back vowel in the next syllable.

Development of diphthongs

The PG diphthongs – [ei, ai, iu, eu, au] – underwent regular independent changes in Early OE; they took place in all phonetic conditions irrespective of environment. The diphthongs with the i-glide were monophthongised into [i:] and [a:], respectively; the diphthongs in –u were reflected as long diphthongs [io:], [eo:] and [ea:].

Вопрос 25 The OE consonant

The consonants were subdivided:

1. On a way/mode of an articulation: constrictives -смычные and fricatives-щелевые andSonants

2By place of an articulation:labial-губной, guttural(velar) заднеяз-е, dental consonants.

3. On a lenght all consonants shared:

short (simple) t and long (geminate -геминаты) tt- удвоенные.

Consctictives– shared as voiced –звонкие(b,d,g) и voiceless (p,t,k). Смычные: простые: /t/ - /d/; /p/- /b/; /k/ - /g/; /k’/- /g’/ геминаты: /t:/ - /d:/; /p:/ - /b:/; /k:/ - /g:/; /k’:/ - /g’:/

Fricatives voiced (v, th, z) fīf /f/– ofer /v/ , sæt, hus /s/ – risan /z/, þeof, wearþ /Ø/ - weorþan /ð/. voiceless [f, Ө, x, s] and voiced [v, ð, γ, z]. Заднеязычныещелевые –h / H – X’/ - habban, nitht. /w/ /j/ /r/ /l/ /m/ / nhave paired geminate. Историческигеминатыупотреблялисьтолькоинтервокально.

Changes

The PG voiced [ð] (due to Verner’s Law) was always hardened to [d] in OE and other WG languages, e.g. Icel, gōðr andOE зōd. The two other fricatives, [v] and [γ] were hardened to [b] and [g] initially and after nasals, otherwise they remained fricatives. PG [z] underwent a phonetic modification through the stage of [з] into [r] and thus became a sonorant, which ultimately merged with the older IE [r]. Thisprocessistermedrhotacism. После фонологизации озвончения по закону Вернера некоторые из озвончившихся фонем изменились качественно. Звонкий дентальный слился со звонким смычным,— отсюда возникла засвидетельствованная в древнеанглийском форма fæder. Индоевропейская фонема /s/ при озвончении по закону Вернера превратилась в */z/, фонему, очень недолго просуществовавшую и перешедшую затем в /r/. Этот переход /s/ через */z/ в /г/ называется ротацизмом. Лабиовелярный /hw/ по закону Вернера изменяется в /w/, но иногда в англских диалектах встречается /з/: sawon, sæзon'увидели'. Закон этот был открыт датским ученым Карлом Вернером. Графически эту позицию можно изобразить так: — щелевой-`- или: -`-согл.— щелевой. ОзвончениеНЕпроисходиловпозиции: -`- щелевой—.

Gemination (lengthening of conson) before jThe process along with i-mutation, after a short sylible.

Assimilation – k,g +dental into h,t. (pyncan-puhte). P,b+dent. Into f,t. (liban-lifte). Dental+dent into ss,st. (vittan-visse). F,m into mm (wifman(n) –wiman(n). m is dropped before h,f,s,p(т.е.th) –fimf-fif. K,g dropped before dental. Macian-made.

Palatalisation – k,g’,sk,into sounds closed to affricares dz..ch,sh. Sk into sh.Front vowel was a resalt of mutation. (cuni-cyn-kin.)родственник, (cuni-cin-chin)подбородок.

Вопрос 10 The reform of OE orthography in ME

The most conspicuous feature of Late ME texts in comparison with OE texts is the difference in spelling. The written forms of the words in Late ME texts resemble their modern forms, though the pronunciation of the words was different. In the course of ME many new devices were introduced into the system of spelling; some of them reflected the sound changes which had been completed or were still in progress in ME; others were graphic replacements of OE letters by new letters and digraphs.

In ME the runic letters passed out of use. Thorn – þ – and the crossed d – đ, ð – were replaced by the digraph th, which retained the same sound value: [Ө] and [ð]; the rune “wynn” was displaced by “double u” – w – ; the ligatures æ and œ fell into disuse. After the period of Anglo-Norman dominance (11th–13th c.) English regained its prestige as the language of writing. Though for a long time writing was in the hands of those who had a good knowledge of French. Therefore many innovations in ME spelling reveal an influence of the French scribal tradition. The digraphs ou, ie, and ch which occurred in many French borrowings and were regularly used in Anglo-Norman texts were adopted as new ways of indicating the sounds [u:], [e:], and [t∫]. other alterations in spelling cannot be traced directly to French influence though they testify to a similar tendency: a wider use of digraphs. In addition to ch, ou, ie, and th Late ME notaries introduced sh (also ssh and sch) to indicate the new sibilant [∫], e.g. ME ship (from OE scip), dg to indicate [dз] alongside j and g; the digraph wh replaced the OE sequence of letters hw as in OE hwæt, ME what [hwat]. Long sounds were shown by double letters, e.g. ME book [bo:k], though long [e:] could be indicated by ie and ee, and also by e. Some replacements were probably made to avoid confusion of resembling letters: thus o was employed not only for [o] but also to indicate short [u] alongside the letter u; it happened when u stood close to n, m, or v, e.g. OE lufu became ME love [luvə]. The letter y came to be used as an equivalent of i and was evidently preferred when i could be confused with the surrounding letters m, n and others. Sometimes, y, as well w, were put at the end of a word, so as to finish the word with a curve, e.g. ME very [veri], my [mi:]; w was interchangeable with u in the digraphs ou, au, e.g. ME doun, down [du:n], and was often preferred finally, e.g. ME how [hu:], now [nu:]. For letters indicating two sounds the rules of reading are as follows. G and с stand for [dз] and [s] before front vowels and for [g] and [k] before back vowels respectively. Y stands for [j] at the beginning of words, otherwise, it is an equivalent of the letter i, e.g. ME yet [jet], knyght [knix’t]. The letters th and s indicate voiced sounds between vowels, and voiceless sounds – initially, finally and next to other voiceless consonants, e.g. ME worthy [wurði]. To determine the sound value of o one can look up the origin of the sound in OE or the pronunciation of the word in NE: the sound [u] did not change in the transition from OE to ME (the OEfor some was sum); in NE it changed to [Λ]. It follows that the letter o stood for [u] in those ME words which contain [Λ] today, otherwise it indicates [o].

Вопрос 7 ME dialects. Earliest records.

The basic OE dialects continued to function in the ME period, and their territorial borders, in general, were kept. The ME dialects are called on the basis of their geographical position. Northumbrian now refers to northern (Northern), Mercian- central (Midland) is divided into West Midland and East Midland; уэссекский - (Southern, South-Western); only Kentishdialect has kept the name, because Kent continued to exist, but the dialect sometimes called (South-Eastern.) The Sou thzrh group included the Kentish and the South-Western dialects. The Southwestern group was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects, - not only West Saxon, but also East Saxon. Among the dialects of this group we may mention the Gloucester dialect and the London dialect. In the course of Early ME the area of the English language

in the British Isles grew. In the late 12th c. the English made their first attempts to conquer Ireland. Theinvaders settled among the Irish and were soon assimilated, a large proportion of the invaders being Welshmen. The English language was used there alongside Celtic languages —Irish and Welsh — and was influenced by Celtic.For a long time after the Norman Conquest there were two foreign written languages in England: Latin and French.

Earliest records

West Midland Dialect. The continue of «Anglo-Saxson hronicles» - from the year 1122 to the year 1154, known as the «The Peterborough Chronicle». «Ormulum», начало 13 в. a poem composed by the monk Orm in about 1200 in the North-East Midland dialect (Lincolnshire). It consists of unrhymed metrical paraphrases

of the Gospels. The text abounds in Scandinavianisms and lacks French borrowings.

Also were wrote «King Horn» и «Havelok the Dane» («ХавелокДатский») -2 verse novel 13в. РобертМаннингизБурна «The Story of England»-verse chronicle.

East-Midland dialect. «Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight» («СэрГавейниЗеленыйрыцарь») -knight's novel, конец 14 в.; the 2-nd knight's novel «William of Palerne» («УильямПалернский», 14 в.). Jne of the main satirical poem «The Vision of William Concerning Piers, the Plowman» («ВидениеПетраПахаря») against corruption in church, and at court. Theauthoris УильямЛэнгленд.Southerndialect. ПоэмаЛайамона «Brut» (начало 13 в)with a touch of Midlest dialect. «Ancren Riwle» - (начало 13 в.). Роберт Глостерский «Chronicle» - стихотворная хроника (конец 13 в.), в начале излагающая как реальную историю кельтские легенды (среди них легенду о короле Лире), а дальше - об ист.событиях. Kentishdialect. Дан Мичел «The Ayenbite of Inwit» («Угрызения совести»), XIV в., перевод с французского. Уильям Шорэмский -стихотворения (начало XIV в.).Southerndialect. «Cursor Mundi» («Бегущий по свету»), 13 в.- рифмованная поэма, aboutbiblelegend. «The Pricke of Conscience» («Угрызениясовести») перваяполовина 14 в. a translation attributed to Richard Rolle of Hampole.Among the Early ME texts in the South-Western dialects should mention THE LONDON PROCLAMATION of the year 1258.

Вопрос 14 OE syntax

The syntactic structure of OE was determined by two major conditions: the nature of OE morphology and the relations between the spoken and the written forms of the language. OE was largely a synthetic language; it possessed a system of grammatical forms which could indicate the connection between words. It was primarily a spoken language, consequently, the syntax of the sentence was relatively simple.

The Phrase. Noun, Adjective and Verb Patterns

The syntactic structure of a language can be described at the level of the phrase and at the level of the sentence. In OE texts we find a variety of word phrases. OE noun patterns, adjective and verb patterns had certain specific features which are important to note in view of their later changes. A noun pattern consisted of a noun as the head word and pronouns, adjectives, numerals and other nouns as determiners and attributes. Most noun modifiers agreed with the noun in gender, number and case, e.g. on þǽm ōþrum þrīm daзum ‘in those other three days’ – Dat. pl Masc.

An adjective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in one of the oblique cases(косвенный) with or without prepositions, and infinitives, e.g. him wæs manna þearf ‘he was in need of man’.

Verb patterns included a great variety of dependant components: nouns and pronouns in oblique cases with or without prepositions, adverbs, infinitives and participles, e.g. brinз þā þīnз ‘bring those things’. Word orderThe order of words in the OE sentence was relatively free. The position of words in the sentence was often determined by logical and stylistic factors rather than by grammatical constraints. Nevertheless the freedom of word order and its seeming independence of grammar should not be overestimated(возвышен). The order of words could depend on the communicative type of the sentence – question versus statement, on the type of clause, on the presence and place of some secondary parts of the sentence. A peculiar type of word order is found in many subordinate and in some coordinate clauses: the clause begins with the subject following the connective, and ends with the predicate or its finite part, all the secondary parts being enclosed between them. It also should be noted that objects were often placed before the predicate or between two parts of the predicate.

Those were the main tendencies in OE word order.

Sentens

Simple sent. Composite(compound, complex). Sentense sometimes have opposition(приложение). Members of the dentense were the same + opposition.

3 types of word order: direct(subj+pred+obj) and inversion:begins with an adverbal modifier/any other subdivision part.

Syntactic sent –when any secondary member is between the subj and predicate.

Impersonal sent. Containes: Impersonal verbs(D.Case+1P.Sg) e.g: him puhte.

Compound sent – wre connected with conjunction(and, un, ac(but). Complex - pat, pe, pone.

Вопрос 26 Noun in OE

The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. Also, nouns distinguished three genders, but gender was not a grammatical category; it was merely a classifying feature accounting for the division of nouns into morphological classes. The category of number consisted of two members: singular and plural There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.The nominativecase indicated the subject of the sentence. It was also used for direct address. The accusative indicated the direct object of the sentence. It was never distinguished in the plural, or in a neuter noun.The genitive case indicated possession. It also indicated partitive nouns.The meanings of the Gen. case were very complex and can only be grouped under the headings “Subjective” and “Objective” Gen. Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin. Objective Gen. is associated with what is termed “partitive meaning” .The dative case indicated the indirect object of the sentence. was the chief case used with prepositions, e.g. on morзenne ‘in the morning’The instrumental case indicated an instrument used to achieve something. During the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having largely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives retained separate forms for the instrumental.

Morphological classification of nouns. DeclensionsHistorically, the OE system of declensions was based on a number of distinctions: the stem-suffix, the gender of nouns, the phonetic structure of the word, phonetic changes in the final syllables.Stem-suffixes could consist of vowels (vocalic stems, e.g. a-stems, i- stems), of consonants (consonantal stems, e.g. n-stems), of sound sequences, e.g. -ja-stems, -nd-stems. Some groups of nouns had no stem-forming suffix or had a “zero-suffix”; they are usually termed “root-stems” and are grouped together with consonantal stems, as their roots ended in consonants, e.g. OE man, bōc.OE nouns distinguished three genders: Masc., Fem. and Neut. Sometimes a derivational suffix referred a noun to a certain gender and placed it into a certain semantic group, e.g. abstract nouns built with the help of the suffix –þu were Fem. – OE lenзþu, ere were Masc. – OE fiscere.Masculine and neuter words generally share their endings. Feminine words have their own subset of endings. The plural does not distinguish between genders.The division into genders was in a certain way connected with the division into stems, though there was no direct correspondence between them: some stems were represented by nouns of one particular gender, e.g. ō-stems were always Fem., others embraced nouns of two or three genders. Other reasons accounting for the division into declensions were structural and phonetic: monosyllabic nouns had certain peculiarities as compared to polysyllabic; monosyllables with a long root-syllable differed in some forms from nouns with a short syllable. The majority of OE nouns belonged to the a-stems, ō-stems and n-stems.

Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. Strong (a,o,i,u –stem). A-stem and its variation ja&wa – m,n. O-stem – jo&wo –f noun. I-stem – m,f,n. U-stem – m,f. j,w –appeare before inflexion.Weak decl – n –m,f,n. es –n. room-stem (Root-stemm formed some cases not by an inflexional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation)-no form suffixes. Sound of donation inner flexion. Mutation was used to define number and gender of noun.Primary compound (both parts in Nomcase) +adj+noun. Secondarycomp.noun (the 2-nd part in Gen Case.)=noun+noun, verb+noun

Stem – part of the word comparasing(connected) root and stem.

Вопрос 27 Adjectives in OE

The adjective in OE could change for number, gender and case. Those were dependent grammatical categories or forms of agreement of the adjective with the noun it modified or with the subject of the sentence – if the adjective was a predicative. Like nouns, adjectives had three genders and two numbers. The category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to the four cases of nouns they had one more case, Instr. It was used when the adjective served as an attribute to a noun in the Dat. case expressing an instrumental meaning.

Adjectives can be declined either strong/weak.

Historically adjective is a younger class of words as compared to noun & it has borrowed many inflections from nouns & pronouns.Declensions (unlike nouns adjectives could be declined both ways):1. strong A-sterm, O-stemi, when adjective was used attributeliy without any determined (articles, demonstrative & possesive pronouns) when used predicatively 2. weak N-sterm, when an adjective was preceded by demonstrative pronoun or genitive case. Some adjectives were declined always strong: call, , oper; others always weak: ilca (=some).