some points which include the number of Pramanask, Bhusana accepting only three (Pratyaksa, Anumana and Sabda ) though Gautama admin four (Prayaksa, Anumana, Upamana and Sabda.).

tyaksa and paroksa and the Sapta-bhangi. But these references give only the barest outlines without any definite details. For example, Kundakunda says:

“The knowledge of him who beholds the immaterial, the supra-sensorial in material object (murtani), and the hidden, complete (embracing) the self and the other, is called Pratyaksa (immediate)” 1

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  1. Pravachanasara. Sruta-skandha I. 54 Trans. By Barred Faddegon.

Amritachandra in his commentary thus explains this verse : “Supra-sensorial knowledge beholds the immaterial, the suprasensorial even in material objects, and the hidden complete, whether included in own as in other. Such knowledge surely is a seer, owing to its immediateness, with reference to (a) immaterial (a-murta) substances such as the principles of motion and statonariness (b) immaterial, but supra-sensorial substances, such as the ultimate atom, (c) that which is hidden in respect of substance e. g. time: that which is hidden in respect of place e. g. the Pradesas of space located outside the world ; that which is hidden in time, e. g. in non-present modifications ; that which is hidden in respect of forms-of-being, namely five (Suksma) modifications latent within gross (Sthula) modifications : those with reference to all things, distinguished as own and other.

Immediate knowledge indeed, bound to a single self, called the Aksa and having the immediacy of its manifested infinite purity and beginning-less connection with the generality of perfect intelligence (Siddha-Chaitanya Samanya) does not search for exterior means, enjoys infinity, because of its possession of infinite energies. Knowledge enjoying such pristine, seeing that the knowable appearances no more outgo knowledge than combustible appearances the fire, what can resist such knowledge ? Therefore it is acceptable.”

Ibid p. 35.

Here Aksa is taken as synonym of Atman. This is to be remembered to contrast the interpretation of Aksa an Indriya (senses) by other Naiyayikas.

“The soul, in itself immaterial, goes into materiality (murti) and then apprehending with this material (body) the material (world), sometimes knows and sometimes does not know that—which-is-fit-for-knowledge (yoga).”

“Touch, taste, smell, colour and sound are the material objects (pudgalas) for the sense-organs ; the sense organs do not grasp them simultaneously.”

“The sense-organs are called an exterior (para) substance, and not an innate nature of the self; how then could that which is reached by them be an immediate perception for the self ?”

“Knowledge of objects from another is called indirect ; but if knowledge is acquired by the soul alone (Kevala Jnana) then it is direct.” 1

Kundakunda describes the sensorial joy ; not superbly real of those who possess indirect knowledge (Paroksa-Jnana) thus :

“The lords of men, demons and Gods, oppressed by their natural (sahaja) organs of sense, unable to withstand that misery, find pleasure in satisfying objects.”2.

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  1. Pravachana-sara. I. 55-58 Trans by Barend Faddegon.
  2. Ibid I-63. Amritachandra explains this verse thus : “Those creatures who through lack of immediate knowledge take refuge in indirect knowledge have a congenial affection for their organs of sense, which are the equipment therefor. So in these persons having this affection for their sense-organs and, while devoured by the flaring Kala-fire of great infatuation, utterly longing and thirsty, like heated balls of iron, and unable to withstand the vehemence of this misery, there arises a satisfaction (rati) with these satisfying (ramya) objects, which serve to soothe their disease. Hence since the sense-organs must be compared to a disease and the objects to means for soothing the disease, no really-true joy exists for those who have a limited knowledge.” Ibid. pp. 41-42.

Kundakunda lays down that a soul in its perfect condition has omniscience knowing by direct intuition (pratyaksa) substances, states etc. in all times and places without operation of senses. Paroksa (indirect) knowledge is sense-knowledge, the senses being a material accretion to the soul.

Saptabhangi is briefly described in Pravachanasara II.23. As this matter is not dealt with in Pariksamukham, we do not dilate upon this subject here.

Umasvami :

Umasvami in the Tattvarthadhigama Sutra made a more detailed reference to Primness and its subdivisions. Laying down the utility of Pramanas and Nayas as means of instruction for attaining right faith1, Umasvami has mentioned that “Mati, Sruta, Avadhi, mananhparyaya and Kevala are right knowledge”2 and these also consist of two Pramanas.3 Mati and Sruta are taken to be Paroksa4 and Avadhi, Mananhparyaya and Kevala as Pratyaksa5. We find in Kundakunda’s Pravachana-sara the idea of Mati, Sruta, Avadhi and Manahparyaya in the following verse :

The saint (Sadhu) has the scripture for eye ; all creatures have their sense-organs for eyes; the Devas have eyes which see the remote (avadhi) ; but the liberated sold (siddhas) have eyes which see everywhere.”6

  1. ¯ÖδÖÖÞÖ®ÖµÖî¸×¬ÖÝÖ´Ö: l Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, 1. 6.
  2. ´ÖןÖÁÖãŸÖÖ¾Ö׬ִ֮Ö: ¯ÖµÖÔµÖÛê¾Ö»ÖÖ×®Ö –ÖÖ®Ö´ÖË l Ibid I. 9.
  3. ŸÖŸÖË ¯ÖδÖÖÞÖê l Ibid I. 10.
  4. †Ö¤ËµÖê ¯Ö¸ÖêõÖ´ÖË l Ibid I. 11.
  5. ¯ÖΟµÖõÖ´Ö®µÖŸÖË l Ibid I. 12.
  6. Pravachana-sara III. 34. Trans. By Barend

Faddegon p. 177.

Kundakunda’s description of Kevala knowledge has already been quoted.

The oldest idea of Pramana in Jainism as expounded by umasvami and as already described is that the knowledge which is derived without the help of the senses or mind is Pratyaksa and the knowledge derived form the help of the senses or mind is Paroksa. Among the three varieties of Pratyaksa Avadhi, Manahparyaya and Kevals, the first two cognise only objects having form. For this reason knowledge derived form these two kinds of Pratyaksa Pramana are called Vikala pratyaksa, but Kevala knowledge cognizes all objects with or with out form in the past, present or future and is therefore known as Sakala Pratyaksa. Mati and Sruta are the two varieties of Paroaksa, and umasvami has mentioned that Smriti, Sanjna (Pratyabhijnana), Chinta (Tarka), and Abhinibodha (Anumana) are within Mati Janana (the first variety of paroksa).

Samantabhadra :

Samantabhadra first used the nomenclature Nyaya and in this respect he inaugurated a separate subject. He however did not compose any special work in Jain Nyaya. He mentions that Pramana illuminates itself as well as together objects2 and states that the result of Pramana is acceptance of desirable things, leaving undesirable things or indifference 3 he has also mentioned Sruta pra-

Tattvarthadhigama Sutra.

See Pariksamukham page 80. Aphorism 2.

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Svayambhu Stotra. Verse 63.

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Apta-mimamsa Vrse 102.

mana as Syadvada and has stated Nyaya to be its part1.

Siddhasena:

Siddhasena Divakara added the word “Badhavivarjjita” (without any obstruction) to the definition of Pramana by Samanta-bhadra viz. That it illuminates itself as well as other objects2. Though Samantabhadra used inference to establish an omniscient being in his Apta-mimamsa, yet we find the definition of Anumana with its subdivisions Svartha and Parartha for the first time in the Nyayavatara of Sdiddhasena. In this work also we get definitions of limbs of Para5thanumana such as perks, Hetu and Dristanta. The fallacies also have been described in the aforesaid tratise3.

Akalanka:

It is of the utmost importance to remember that except in the Jaina Nyaya, we nowhere find knowledge derived form the senses being called Paroksa Pramana. In Hindu Sastras, knowledge derived form the senses is known as Pratyaksa Pramana. Akalanka the greatest of Jain logicians attempted to reconcile this in the following way. He accepted Pratyaksa and Paroksa as two Pramanas but instead of dividing Pratyaksa into Sakala and Vikala, he laid down two hitherto unknown divisions viz.

  1. õÖ֤˾ÖÖ¤-¯ÖÎ×¾Ö³ÖŒŸÖÖ£ÖêÔ ×¾Ö¿ÖÂÖ¾µÖÓ•ÖÛúÖê ®ÖµÖ: l

Apta-mimasa Verse 106.

  1. Vide Pariksamukham p. 20 Note 9.
  2. Verses from Nyayavatara on all these matters have been quoted in footnotes in Pariksamukham in appropriate places.
  3. ‡×®¦µÖÖ£ÖÔÃÖ×®®ÖÛúÂÖÖêÔŸÖ˯֮®ÖÓ Nyaya Sutra ( Guatama ) I. 1. 4.

Sanvyavaharika and Mukhya Pratyaksa. He further laid down that Mati Jaina derived through the senses and mind is not paroksa but Sanvyavaharika Pratyaksa. As Mati came to be recognized as Sanvyavaharika Pratyaksa, its corelated Smriti, Sanjna, Chinta and Abhinibodha as mentioned by umasvami also came under the same head. But a subjtle distinction was made by Akalanka. He subdivided Sanvyavaharika pratyaksa into two heads (a) Indriya-pratyaksa (knowledge derived through the senses) under which came Mati and (b) Anindriya-pratyaksa (knowledge derived through mind) under which came Smriti, Sanjna, Chinta and Bhinibodha as mind is prevalent in these four. The change necessitated a change of definition of Pratyaksa and Akalanka accordingly defined Pratyaksa as clear knowledge.” (“Prtyaksam visadam jnanam.”)

Now, to meet the argument that if we take Mati as Pratyaksa we must say that the traditional acceptance of the view that it is Paroksa is denied undermining the oldest authorities like Umasvami, Akalanka has written that Mati, Smriti, Sanjna, Chinta and Abhinibodha will be Pratyaksa so long as these

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  1. ¯ÖΟµÖõÖÓ ×¾Ö¿Ö¤Ó –ÖÖ®ÖÓ ´ÖãܵÖÃÖÖÓ¾µÖ¾ÖÆÖ׸Ûú´ÖË l

¯Ö¸ßõÖÓ ¿ÖêÂÖ×¾Ö–ÖÖ®ÖÓ ¯ÖδÖÖÞÖ×´Ö×ŸÖ ÃÖÓÝÖÎÆ: ll Laghyastraya Verse 1.

  1. †Öªê ¯Ö¸ÖêõÖ´Ö¯Ö¸Ó ¯ÖΟֵÖõÖÓ ¯ÖÎÖÆãÃÖ¸Ó•ÖÃÖÖ l

Ûê¾Ö»ÖÓ »ÖÖÛú²Ö㬤î¬Ö¾Ö ´ÖŸÖê»ÖÔõÖÞÖÃÖÓÝÖÎÆ: ll Nyaya-vinischaya

Verse 93.

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Vivriti on Laghiyastraya. Verse 4.

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Vivriti on Laghiyastraya. Verse 61

Remain in the mental state. The moment these are connected with words i.e. are expressed in words they will become Paroksa. Thus, Akalanka has accepted Mati etc, as Pratyaksa in one sense and Paroka in another sense. According to Akalanka Sruta is what is heard and so the knowledge derived through words is Sruta and the knowledge having no connection with words is Svyavaharika Pratyaksa.

The peculiarity of Akalanka is that under Sruta in Paroksa Pramana he has two subdivisions Aksaratmaka and Anaksaratmake. Other Jain logicians have mentioned that Anumana (inference) is of two kinds Svarthanumana (inference for one’s own self) and Pararthanumana ( inference for the sake of others). Akalanka says that it is not inference alone that has these two subdivisions but other Pramanas also may be for Svartha and Parartha. Svarthanumana is accepted by a Akalanka to be included in Anaksaratmaka Sruta pramana as no help of words is necessary for is acceptance and Pararthanumana according to Akalanka comes within Aksaratmaka Anumana as this cannot arise without help of words. The Pramanas Arthapatti, Agama etc are all recognised by Akalanka to be varieties of Sruta pramana.

The following tables will illustrate the difference between the divisions of Pramana by the oldest writers such as Umasvami and Akalanka.

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  1. –ÖÖ®Ö´ÖÖªÓ ´ÖןÖ: ÃÖÓ–ÖÖ ×“Ö®ŸÖÖ “ÖÖ׳Ö×®Ö¾ÖÖê¬Ö®Ö´ÖË l

¯ÖÎÖ’Ëû®ÖÖ´ÖµÖÖê•Ö®ÖÖ“Ö”êÂÖÓ ÁÖãŸÖÓ ¿Ö²¤Ö®ÖãµÖÖê•Ö®ÖÖŸÖË ll Laghiyastraya.