(18) Verbs and their Formal and Semantic Properties
(Finite, Non-finite; Auxiliaries, Modals, Lexical Verbs; Verbo-nominal Groups; Phrasal Verbs, Verbs of Perception, Causative Verbs)
(18.1) Morphological Properties of Verbs(18.1.1) Derivational Morphology
-verbal suffixes: -ise (recognise), -ify (magnify)
-some verbs homonymous with nouns: act, challenge, flood
-some verbs homonymous with adjectives: clean, secure, etc.
(18.1.2) Inflectional Morphology
(a)finite verb forms: reflect the subject-verb agreement in person and number
(b)non-finite verb forms (infinitive, gerund, participle)
(1)regular flexion > productive / open class: 4 verbal forms
(2)irregular flexion > unproductive / closed class: 4 or 5 verbal forms
-irregular means of flexion manifested only in the past participle / passive participle forms
-bare form: null suffix
-3rd per. SG present tense form: -(e)s suffix > homonymous with the regular plural of N, observes the same rules for pronunciation / spelling x no change of the word-final <y>
-present participle / gerund form: -ing suffix > the same rules for pronunciation / spelling as the grading of ADJ / ADV
-past simple / past participle / passive participle: -ed suffix > pronounced [id] after [t, d], pronounced [t] after voiceless consonants, pronounced [d] after voiced consonants and vowels
(18.2) Verb Classes(1)lexical verbs: an open system
(2)primary auxiliaries: be, have, do
(3)central modals: can / could, may / might, shall / should, will / would, must
(4)marginal modals: used to, need, dare, ought to, etc.
(5)modal idioms: had better, would rather, be to, have got to, etc.
(6)semi-auxiliaries: have to, be about to, be going to, etc.
(18.2.1) Specification of Lexical Verbs
-form all the four flexion forms, either regularly or irregularly (past / passive participle)
-manifest all verbal grammatical categories (tense, aspect, mood, voice; person, number)
-need do-support (question, negation)
(18.2.2) Specification of Auxiliaries
-allow contractions (x modals to a lesser extend x lexicals not at all)
-take the negative particle not (like modals x unlike lexicals)
-invert in questions, do not need do-support
-occur in question tags, questions of surprise, short answers
-require a verbal complement (when not used as lexicals)
-have no independent thematic frame, do not influence valency
(18.2.3) Specification of Modals
-inert elements = lack of inflectional morphology: no 3rd per. SG present form / no gerund / no participle / no to infinitive
-do not form passive / imperative
-suppletive forms for infinitive: can > be able to; may > be allowed to; must > have to, etc.
(18.3) Auxiliaries – Be / Have / Do(18.3.1) Be
(1)lexical
(a)= to exist (typically with the existential there phrase): there’s no smoke without fire
(b)= to be situated (+ adverbial): the key is under the mat
(c)= to take place (+ adverbial): the farewell party was yesterday
(2)copula
(a)+ adjective as the other part of the predicate: the different is negligible
(b)+ predicative noun: the whole thing is a fraud
(3)auxiliary
(a)progressive aspect
(b)passive voice
(4)modal
-+ infinitive: he says we are to start at once
(18.3.2) Have
(1)possessive
(a)BrE: AUX (have you got a book? I haven’t got a book)
(b)AmE: LEX (do you have a book? I don’t have a book)
(2)perfect (aspect): AUX (have you written a letter? I haven’t written a letter)
(3)agent (verbo-nominal structures): LEX (do you have a look around / shower / lunch?)
(4)modal: LEX (there has to be some means)
(5)causative (+ past participle): LEX (where do you have your car serviced?)
(6)conditional (had + better): AUX (you’d better be going)
(18.3.3) Do
(1)lexical
(2)do-support
(a)formation of negation
(b)of question
(c)of negative imperative (don’t hesitate)
(d)means of emphasis (do sit down!)
(3)prop-verb
(e)pro-form of the predicate in question tags, questions of surprise, short answers
(18.4) Modals(18.4.1) Can / Could
-ability: he can play piano
-permission: could I smoke in here?
-possibility: anyone can make mistakes
(18.4.2) May / Might
-permission: you may borrow my car
-possibility: the road might be blocked
(18.4.3) Shall / Should
-shall
-intention: we shall overcome
-insistence: he shall be punished
-should
-obligation: you should do as he says
-distant possibility: if you should change your mind, let me know
-1st per. conditional: we should love to go abroad if we had the chance
(18.4.5) Will / Would
-will
-willingness: he’ll help you if you ask him
-polite request: will you open the window
-future: I’ll write as soon as I can
-prediction (future continuous): he will be still reading his paper
-prediction (future perfect): the guests will have arrived by now
-would
-polite request: would you open the window
-characteristic activity in past: every morning he would go for a long walk
-present conditional: he would smoke too much if I didn’t stop him
-probability: that would be his mother
(18.4.6) Must
-obligation: you must be back by ten
-logical necessity: there must be a mistake
(18.5) Verb Classes – Semantic Criteria(1)action verbs
(a)human activities: move, hurry, walk, carry, laugh, play
(b)mental processes: think, wonder, puzzle, guess, count, calculate
(c)changes of state: develop, grow, increase, improve, change, mature
(d)momentary actions (individual actions of short duration): hop, jump, stab, prick, tap, knock
(2)state verbs
(a)physical states: feel, hurt, ache, itch
(b)perceptions: see, hear, smell, taste, feel
(c)mental states: know, understand, believe, doubt, hope, think
(d)emotions: like, love, detest, envy, hate, prefer, wish, want
(e)human external relations: contain, involve, concern, measure, cost, resemble
(f)having and being: belong, own, depend, seem, appear, need
(18.6) Verb Classes – Morphological Criteria(1)one-word verbs
(2)phrasal verbs composed by verb + adverbial particle
-V + adverbial only: out
-V + adverbial homonymous with PREP: in, off, on
-V + adverbial homonymous with other word class: back
-distribution of the adverbial particle within a phrasal verb: optionally follows either the verb or the nominal object / obligatorily follows the pronominal object (she couldn’t get off her ring or she couldn’t get her ring off / she couldn’t get it off)
-distribution of the preposition within a V + PREP collocation: obligatorily follows both the nominal or the pronominal object (she got off her bike / she got off it)
(a)idioms: the phrasal verb produces a new lexical item with a meaning different from the sum of the meaning of the verb and the respective adverbial particle (make up [invent], put off [= postpone], put out [= extinguish])
(b)collocations: the verb and the respective adverbial particle retain its individual meanings (turn over, put back, look out)
(c)intensifying collocations: fasten up [= fasten], drink up [= drink], break up [= break]
(d)+ often the verb and the respective adverbial particle have both the idiomatic and the literary meaning
(3)phrasal verbs composed by verb + preposition
-idioms: look after (a baby), look for (one’s glasses), take after (one’s mother)
(4)phrasal verbs composed by verb + adverbial particle + preposition
-do away with (sth unpleasant), go in for (a hobby), look forward to, etc.
(18.7) Verb Classes – Syntactic Criteria-criterion: whether and what kind of complementation the verb requires to form a grammatical structure
-E: verbs formally unmarked for transitivity
-CZ: transitive verbs unmarked x intransitive verbs most often marked by the particle se (bend x ohnout / ohnout se; heal x hojit / hojit se)
(1)modal verbs + VP (the boy can come)
(2)copula verbs + NP / AP
(a)the type be
-incl. verbs of perception: look, feel, smell, taste, sound
-incl. verbs of modal meaning: seem, appear, prove, turn out
-incl. state verbs: remain, stay, keep, continue, stand, rest
(b)the type have
-complemented by a noun with an active meaning
-incl. have, make, take, get, put, pay, etc. (have a rest, give a chuckle, make a fuss)
(c)the type become
-incl. turn, grow, get, go, come, fall, etc.
(3)intransitive verbs + 0 (laugh, cough, groan, shudder, die)
(4)monotransitive verbs + NP / AP / PP
(a)V + NP (she read a diary)
(b)verbs of movement + AP / PP (the tramp leaned towards the girl; he arrived tired)
(c)reflexive verbs: the subject co-referential with the object (distinguish / disguise / content oneself)
(5)ditransitive verbs + NP NP / NP AP / NP PP (he told the girl a story; the music drives me mad; he wrote a letter to her)
(18.8) Verbo-nominal Groups(18.8.1) Formation and Use
-verbs: have; do / make; give / take; get, put, pay, tell, bear, draw
-a ‘weak’ verb complemented by a nominal object with an active meaning
-a verbo-nominal predicate can be expressed by a verbal predicate by using the same verb from which the nominal part of the construction was derived: to have a wash > to wash
-verbo-nominal predicate: points out an individual occurence of the action concerned
-verbal predicate: describes the action as a whole, as a process in general
-E: verbo-nominal groups
(a)+ allow a modification not possible with a verbal predicate: have a good look at sth, have a nice swim, have a long run [in the theatre]
(b)+ avoid the use of object necessary with transitive verbs: do the cleaning, make inquiries, make arrangements
(c)+ form a perfect meaning (point out a single occurence of the action)
(d)– restriction: cannot be passivised
-CZ: constructions of equivalent meaning formed by affixation of the respective verb
(18.8.2) Types
(a)the nominal part of the construction formed by conversion
-verb converts into noun
-some of such converted nouns restricted to use in the verbo-nominal predicates only
-have a wash / a shave / a chat
-give a kick / a polish / a push
-take a look / a walk / a glance
-make a fuss / a guess / a search
-get a move on / a jump on sb
(b)the nominal part of the construction formed by derivation
-to do reviewing, to make a conclusion, to bear resemblance
(18.9) Causative Verbs-OE: intransitive x causative Vdistinguished by their morphology
-some remains: lie / lay, sit / set, fall / fell, rise / raise, drink / drench
-ME: periphrastic forms with the causative meaning
-make / have / let / get / force / induce / compel / impel sb. to do sth
-structure: causative V + theagent of the following infinitive [different from the subject of the preceding V] +to infinitive (the wind caused the fire to spread to the adjacent buildings)
(18.10) Verbs of Perception-see, watch, observe, notice, witness, hear, feel
-structure1: Vof perception +bare infinitive = the action as a whole > perfect aspect (I saw it happen = ... how it happened)
-structure2: Vof perception +-ing form = the action in its process > continuous aspect (I heard the outer door banging in the wind)
-restrictions: in their primary meaning of sense perception do not form the continuous –ing form x the continuous aspect expressed by the use of can (I can’t hear you, speak up)
-x the continuous –ing form used to express a gradual change: I am hearing it better now / I am seeing it more clearly now
-x the continuous –ing also used with the action meaning: I am seeing him to the door / the cook is tasting the soup [ochutnávat] /I am feeling the surface [ohmatávat]