69EG3191 Third Year Project
Factors affecting flightecology of macaws, parrots and parakeets on the La Torre colpa, RioTambopata, Peru.
Mr D.E. Crabtree
A project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Ecology and Conservation. The
ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity
Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences
The ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity
April 2007
Ymroddedig i’r Cymry
Acknowledgements
My project coordinator Dr. Stuart Marsden for the help and advice, Alan Lee and for aiding in data collection, Rolando and the family for the accommodation and a great time in the jungle, and finally Richard Amable for teaching me about Peruvian culture and customs.
Declaration of originality
This is to certify that the work is entirely my own and not of any other person, unless explicitly acknowledged (including citation of published and unpublished sources). The work has not previously been submitted in any form to the ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity or to any other institution for assessment of for any other purpose.
Signed ………………………………….....
Date……………………………………..
Abstract
This study explored patterns of early morning flight activity and flocking to and from a clay lick in a diverse community of parrots in a Peruvian Amazonian lowland rainforest. Parrots were most active just after sunrise with a second peak of flight activity half way through morning feeding. Most parrot species flew in groups of one to four individuals; suggesting that mated pairs are stable and that family groups remain together post-fledging. The flight patterns of each species except for spp. Artinga were non-random, suggesting a particular nesting location for the species. The birds were observed daily as they were disturbed from the ‘clay lick’ by either the local boats with peke-peke motors, or by the boats with outboard motors transporting tourists to and from Puerto Maldonado. The former (i.e. local boats) were found to cause the greater disturbance suggesting that the birds' behaviour had adapted to recognise the locals as a potential threat. This may be because the macaws and parrots were hunted or caught for the pet trade in the recent past, or may indeed be due to continued exploitation.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction (Page 6) 1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Psittacine Order
1.3 Psittacine behaviour
1.4 Psittacine conservation status
1.5 Geophagy in south-eastern Peru
1.6 Conservation and economic value of ‘clay licks’
1.7 Aims
1.8 Objectives
2. Methodology (Page 14)2.1 Study Site
2.2 Experimental Design and Implication
2.3 Analytical and Statistical Methods
3. Results (Page 20)3.1 Avian Abundance
3.2 Incoming Flight Directions
3.3 Landing Locations
3.4 Species and Weather Associations
3.5 Disturbances
3.6 Direct Flight Results
4. Discussion (Page 28)4.1 Abundance, Incoming flight directions and Landing Locations
4.2 Large Species of Macaw
4.3 Associations
4.4 Weather
4.5 Disturbance
5. Conclusion (Page 35) 5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Improvements to the design of the study
5.3 Management implications
6. Reference List (Page 38)
Tables
Table 1.Scientific and common names of the species studied, including geographical range and IUCN conservation status. Detailed information in Appendix 1.
Table 2.Historical investigations regarding geophagy within avifauna in the Tambopata area.
Table 3. The number of recordings of each of the eight species plus the number of groups recorded over the 14 day period.
Table 4. The number of groups recorded on the incoming flight from each zone, including the percentage for that species:
Table 5. The number of groups recorded landing in each section surrounding the colpa, including the percentage for that species:
Table 6. Tests of association between species with the chi-squared (X²) and p – values.
Table 7. The total mean percentages of the birds leaving the colpa site when a flush was initiated, and the percentage that returned from the original number that left.
Table 8. The recorded causes behind the flushes
Table 9.The abundance counts for the three large species of macaw. Included are group sizes and individual numbers:
Table 10. This table shows the flight direction these large species of macaw flew.
Figures
Figure 1. The Tambopata river, colpa and research site.
Figure 2.How the sky surrounding the colpa was fragmented in to sections
Figure 3.The colpa and the surrounding 6 zones of vegetation
Figure 4.Activity graph representing the mean number of individuals from each data set plotted against the morning time
1.1 Introduction
Peru is located on the Pacific coast of South America and is the third largest country on the continent. Two thirds of Peruvian territory is located within the Amazon basin. The Amazon rainforest is well known for being the zenith of faunal and floral biodiversity (De Castro 1985) including bird species that surpass a fifth of all avifauna that exists (Beiregaard et al 2001). It is said to be one of the most biotically rich terrestrial biomes in the world (Heywood 1995), but at the same time, it has been impinged on by heavy anthropogenic disturbances and remains a high priority for conservationists (Hubbell & Foster 1992). This area is also home to a number of landmark animals listed in the IUCN's Red Data Book. Amongst them the giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), jaguar (Panthera onca), giant river otter (Pteronura brasiliensis), harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and black caiman (Melanosuchus niger).
1.2 The Psittacines Order
The study concentrated on several species from the order Psittacines (which contain macaws, parrots and parakeets). This order is one of the most diverse orders of birds containing a total of around 353 species (Forshaw 1989). They are found in most neo-tropical areas of the world and have the characteristic curved beak (Juniper & Parr 1998). Their origin is still a mystery but there are suggestions that they originated from the precedent Gondwanan supercontinent, due to the present diversity of Psittaciformes in South America and Australasia (Juniper & Parr 1998).
1.3 Psittacine behaviour
Social behaviour varies between different psittacine species. Solitary behaviour is the exception (Kakapo, Strigops habroputilus) with most species pairing for life and showing complex social organization (Luescher 1997). Flock formation is also important, helping with predator detection and avoidance, access to mates, defence of territories and foraging efficiency (Wilson 1975).Previous studies on psittaciform species have shown their habitat preferences are primary and secondary forest with a relatively high number of palm species and emergents for nesting sites (Enkerlin-Hoeflich et al 1999). Eucalyptusplantation habitats were the only totally anthropogenic habitat used by the macaws in this study (Marsden et al 2005).
Griffin et al (2001) reviewed the importance and meaning of dominance interactions between psittacine social groups. A dominance relationship exists when predictable dominance-sub ordinance responses occur between members of a stable social group, based on the prior interactions between the individuals. Once relationships are established, there is consistency in social interactions, resulting in fewer, or less intense, aggressive assertions of dominance (Luescher 1997). Another important behaviour of the Psittaciformes order is allopreening which occurs when an individual uses its beak to groom another bird. It is cited as the most important mechanism for maintenance of the pair bond (Gill 1995)
1.4 Psittacine conservation status
Eight of the sixteen species of macaws are classified as Endangered and most populations of macaws are declining ( Parrots have the highest percentage of threatened species of all the world's bird familieswith the 17 macaw species are among the most endangered (Collar 1997). There are currently fewer than 3,000 hyacinth macaws in the wild, red-fronted macaws and blue-throated macaws are both thought to number fewer than 1,000, and, most distressing of all, only one Spix's macaw remains in the wild ( The reason is due to habitat destruction and the popularity of the wildlife trade (González 2003). One over-looked threat is demand for Mauritia or Aguaje palm fruit, which is one of the macaw's favourite nesting sites and important food sources. The quickest way to collect the fruit from these trees is to cut them down, which the locals undertake, thus eliminating suitable nesting sites (Bonadie & Bacon 2000). The majority of macaws are dependent upon forests both for food and for nesting sites making them a danger since the world's forests are being destroyed at rapid speeds. The main causes are commercial logging and clearance for agriculture (Burslem & Whitmore 1999).
The survival rate for young birds captured in the wild is very low, sometimes as low as 1%, prompting trappers to often focus their attention on adults, which is extremely damaging to populations (Nilsson and Mak 1980). To combat illegal hunting and exploitation an organisation called CITES was set up in the early 1960s. The ‘Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species’ is an international agreement between governments to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. They manage this by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls. (
Their diet is relatively diverse, with most Psittacines feeding on fruits, berries, seeds and nuts as well as unripe seeds and fruits, those with tough shells and spines, or distasteful ones containing poisons (Renton 2001). This is one of the reasons why they carry out geophagy, which is explained in the next section.
1.5 Geophagy in south-eastern Peru
Many of species from the Psittacidaegenera congregate in large numbers around claylicks (Colpas) (Brightsmith 2004a). It is here where they undertake geophagy, which is defined as the intake of clay or soil into a species diet. It happens to mostly vertebrates, and has been recorded in animals such as birds, sheep, zebra and even bears (Diamond et al. 1999; Cooper, 2000: Low, 2003). Geophagy is widespread and well documented in mammals, but avian geophagy has only recently become the subject of serious scientific investigation (Brightsmith 2004). In the Tambopata region of Peru alone there are many species of birds and mammals that congregate around colpas regularly, including peccary and tapir (Rolando pers. Comm). There are many a theory behind why certain species do this, with journalsdemonstrating1) how the clay contains minerals that the species necessitate (Jones & Hanson 1985)2) others say it aids digestion (Best & Gionfriddo 1991), 3) neutralises dietary toxins (Diamond et al. 1999) 4) or protection of the gut lining (Gilardi 1996). Jones & Hanson (1985)demonstrate how clay can contain trace amounts of minerals such as Sodium, Iron and Calcium and are used as supplements to the diets of these species, as these are usually hard to come by through customary food selection. Best & Gionfriddo 1991 comment on how clay can be used as a mechanical aid to assist digestion. It is common in other species of bird in which the small stones are held in the muscular gizzard and used to grind seeds before they are passed to the stomach (Moss 1989). Brightsmith 2002 explains that plants can be protected by toxins such as tannins and caffeine and in large quantities can be poisonous to the organism. When clay is eaten the very fine negatively charged particles bind with the positively charged dietary toxins. When united they prohibit entry into the bloodstream and are passed out in the faeces. He also explains that clay can protect the gut lining by sticking to the lining of the stomach providing a physical barrier between the toxic food and the stomach. Geophagy has been found to be important in domestic animals and therefore seeming logical to assume that this mechanism of lining the stomach is also helping some parrots and macaws in neo-tropical areas (Klaus & Schmid 1998).
It is probable that any of the above theories are correct under the right circumstances, but geophagy in most species is poorly understood and may be a complex combination of all the above theories (Gilardi 1996).
Brightsmith (2004) explains that colpa use in southeastern Peru is highly seasonal. Most species show simultaneous annual lows in lick use during the end of the wet season and beginning of the dry season (April – June). Annual highs in lick use occur between July and February and differ among species. The peaks in colpa use for most species studied coincide with breeding. In particular it seems that adults are feeding clay to their young chicks during the period of maximum growth and perhaps lowest resistance to natural toxins found in their diet.
Previous studies in the Tambopata area have shown that Macaws have a very low intake of sodium in their diet (Brightsmith & Aramburú 2004) however the soil located at the clay licks are rich in sodium, thus possibly explaining the geophagy in the Tambopata area. It has also been suggested that social interactions are grounds for meeting at these colpas. Birds may arrive at the colpas only to interact with members of the same species i.e. finding a mate or learning of new food sources (Hammer 2001).
1.6 Conservation and economic value of colpas
This event gives the area huge ecotourism potential with visitors attracted by the spectacular bird gatherings. Ecotourism is economically important and is now the third leading foreign currency gainer for Peru (Stronza 2000). New eco-tourist lodges along the river help to protect the rainforest of Tambopata while meeting the economic needs of the people in the local community (Piana 1999). They try to provide training to community members in all aspects of ecology management. A short distance from the research site there was and eco-lodge called Posada. After 3 year of ownership the operators have made sure that all profits and operations are handed over to the local community. (Posada Lodge is illustrated in Plate 1).
One area of concern is that as part of the holiday, Posada Amazonas organizes daily trips to the colpas. There are no restrictions in place (pers. obs.) as to the number of visitorsat the site and there is obviously a conflict of interest in wishing to maintain the colpa in their undisturbed state against possible disturbance by visitors. Scientists at the Tambopata Research Centre have concerns that birds are being frightened away from the colpas before having a chance to feed (Alan Lee Pers Comms)..
The names, geographical ranges and IUCN listings of the species studied are illustrated in table 1. Illustrations and detailed information of these species are displayed in Appendix One.
There is a large Macaw Project in the area, conducted by ecologists from the Tambopata Research Centre at many different colpa locations. ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity have a strong link with the project as one of the Ph.D. students is carrying out a research study in the area. Present in table 2 are some of the key studies on geophagy in avian fauna.
Table 1: Scientific and common names of the species studied, including geographical range and IUCN conservation status.
Scientific Name / Common Name / Weight (g) / Range / Population / IUCN RedlistAra severa / Chestnut-Fronted Macaw / 430 / 5,800,000 km² / Stable / Least Concern
Aratinga weddellii / Dusky-Headed Parakeet / 110 / 2,300,000 km² / Increase / Least Concern
Amazona farinosa / Mealy Parrot / 800 / 7,200,000 km² / Decline / Least Concern
Pionus Menstrus / Blue-Headed Parrot / 293 / 8,300,000 km² / Increase / Least Concern
Ara chloroptera / Red and Green Macaw / 1250 / 8,100,000 km² / Decline / Least Concern
Ara macao / Scarlet Macaw / 1015 / 6,700,000 km² / Decline / Least Concern
Ara ararauna / Blue and Gold Macaw / 1125 / 7,800,000 km² / Stable / Least Concern
Brotogeris cyanoptera / Cobalt-Winged Parakeet / 67 / 2,600,000 km² / Stable / Least Concern
Table 2: Historical investigations regarding geophagy within avifauna in the Tambopata area.
Authors / Title / Summary of findingsD. Brightsmith 2004 / Effects of weather on parrot geophagy in Peru / Discovered there was greater colpa use on sunny mornings than on rainy ones
M. Hammer 2001 / Parrot colpa and geophagy behaviour from the El Gato / The most likely reason for clay eating is detoxification at this site.
JD Gilardi et al 1999 / Biochemical Functions of Geophagy in Parrots / Role of geophagy is dependent on location
D. Brightsmith 2004 / Avian geophagy and soil characteristics on a colpa in South-eastern Peru / Preferred soils were deficient in particles large enough to aid in the mechanical breakdown of food and help digestion
1.7 Aims of this project
This paper presents a study of flight ecology on species from the Psittacidaegenera around a colpa in south-eastern Peru. The aim is to illustrate if there are any factors present at the site that disrupt or disturb the feeding of flight ecology of the species.
1.8 Objectives
Through the use of various methods of non-parametric analysis, the objectives are (1 to quantify the factors affecting the flight and feeding of various species of Psittacidae landing at the colpa 2) to propose a scenario to explain these factors, for the benefit of future sustainable colpa use for tourism.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study Site
The research site was located at the edge of the buffer zone of the Tambopata National Reserve (26K south-west of Puerto Maldonado, SEPeru, 12º 48’ S, 69º 18’ W). The reserve originated in the late 1970s as the small Tambopata Reserved Zone comprising of about 5,000 hectares, but was enlarged to 1.5 million hectares in 1990. The altitude of the park ranges from 240 to 3,500 metres, with habitats ranging from sub-tropical moist forest, cloud forest, to tropical savannah. (Treves et al 2003). The study site was located in lowland tropical forest and situated on the banks of an upper tributary to the Amazon, the TambopataRiver, near the La Torre Community in the Department of Madre de Dios. Annual precipitation is around 2810 mm per year (Pearson & Derr 1986). There is a well-defined dry season that starts in April and ends in October during which time rapid changes in temperature are common, with a minimum of 8 ºC a maximum of 34 ºC and a mean of 24 ºC (Kirkby et al. 2000).
The dimensions of the colpa wereapproximately 7meters in length by 3meter in height , situated on the bank of the TambopataRiver. The river was about 30m wide at this point. It meandered strongly with high mud cliff walls on the outside bends, with flat terrain on the inside bend. This pattern was present at the site and the research area was set up on the riverbank opposite the colpa. The distance between the research site and the colpa was about 40 metres. The colpa faced west; therefore sunrise was behind the colpa as seen from the research site. Due to the sunrise being in the west in the southern hemisphere the colpa was therefore in the shade in the morning and only getting some weak sunlight in the afternoon. The location of the colpa relative to the TambopataRiver is illustrated in Fig 1.