Theoretical basis based on specific needs & development

1.Principles/assumption of “worthy and effective learning”

/ Vocabulary size and language proficiency
  • It is believed that there is a close correlation between vocabulary size and language proficiency. Alderson (2000: 35) argues that “measures of readers’ vocabulary knowledge routinely correlate highly with measures of reading comprehension, and are often, indeed, the single best predictor of text comprehension”.

  • Studies have shown the effect that a large L2 vocabulary base can have on writing skills, (Engber, 1995; Laufer & Nation, 1995) and on listening and speaking skills (Joe, 1995; Joe, Nation & Newton, 1996; Newton, 1995). While correlation does not necessarily imply causality, empirical studies have shown that good L2 readers, writers, speakers and listeners have a more extensive vocabulary under their control.
  • Although vocabulary size has great effects on students’ performance in the four language skills, Atay and Kurt (2006: 256) point out that “many learners, particularly in EFL contexts, are not developing their lexicons to levels that would permit them to communicate, read, or write adequately in English, despite years of formal study”.
  • A study conducted by Chui (2005) showed that most 2004 entrants to CUHK knew between 2,000 and 3,000 English words. Yet, international research suggests that students need at least 5,000 words to cope with university study in English. This shows that many of the university students in Hong Kong may not have adequate vocabulary for academic study.
Setting a vocabulary goal
  • To address the problem of inadequate vocabulary of learners, it is essential to set a vocabulary target which enables them to cope with their studies and everyday communication without much difficulty. Yet, to select a manageable number of items from the entire vocabulary for the inclusion in the English Language curriculum is by no means a simple task because of the enormous number of English words. Of the 54,000 word families in Webster’s Third, less than 20,000 are known by native speakers (Goulden, Nation and Read, 1990) and represent an average adult native speaker’s vocabulary size. However, setting the vocabulary target at 20,000 words in an ELF context seems to be too demanding and unrealistic.
  • As international research (Laufer, 1992) suggests that students need at least 5,000 words to cope with university study in English, acquiring 5,000 words by the end of secondary education seems to be a reasonable threshold level for EFL learners. These 5,000 words should include high-frequency words from both written and spoken corpora as well as academic words to provide students with sufficient vocabulary for their studies and for use in everyday communication.

  • The development of wordlists consisting of 5,000 essential words may help teachers make informed and principled decisions in selecting appropriate vocabulary items for supplementing the coursebook materials and in planning for effective vocabulary learning and teaching.

Developing vocabulary building strategies
  • Calls for helping learners improve the way they go about learning vocabulary have been made on a number of grounds. Sokmen (1997: 225) argues for helping learners learn how to acquire vocabulary on their own, noting that it is “not possible for students to learn all the vocabulary they need in the classroom”.
  • Cunningsworth (1995: 38) regards helping learners develop their own vocabulary building strategies as “a powerful approach”, which can be based on sensitisation to the systems of vocabulary, encouragement of sound dictionary skills and reflection on effective learning techniques.
  • The English Language Syllabus for Secondary Schools(Secondary 1-5) (CDC, 1999) and the English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 – 6) (CDC & HKEAA, 2007) highlight the need for the promotion of vocabulary building strategies that are conducive to effective and independent learning. They recommend explicit teaching of the following strategies:
Knowledge of word formation
Collocation
Knowledge of lexical relations
Guessing and inferencing
Using a dictionary and thesaurus
Recording words
Retaining words
  • According to Nation (2001: 217), vocabulary building strategies should:
involve choice, that is, there are several strategies to choose from
be complex, that is, there are several steps to learn
require knowledge and benefit from training
increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and vocabulary use
  • Nation’s definition provides useful hints for effective vocabulary learning and teaching as he has highlighted the importance of explicit instruction on a variety of vocabulary building strategies which aim not only to enhance the learners’ knowledge of vocabulary but also to encourage the active use of it. Thus, it is essential for a school-based English Language curriculum to cover a range of vocabulary building strategies, which contribute to the development of both receptive and productive vocabulary skills, for learners’ choice and use.

2.List of seminal references

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Alderson, C. (2000). Assessing Reading. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
Atay, D. & Kurt, G. (2006). Elementary school EFL learners' vocabulary learning: The effects of post-reading activities. Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(2), 255-273.
Brown, C & Payne, M. E. (1994). Five essential steps of processes in vocabulary learning. Paper presented at the TESOL Convention, Baltimore, Md.
Brown, T. S. & Perry, F. L. (1991). A comparison of three learning strategies for ESL vocabulary acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 25(4), 655-670.
Carter, R. (1987). Is there a core vocabulary? Some implications for language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 8(2), 178-193.
Chui, S.Y. (2005). An Investigation of the English Vocabulary Knowledge of University Students in Hong Kong. Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis.
Cobb, T. (n.d.). Compleat Lexical Tutor v.4. Retrieved August 7 2005, from
Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman.
Cunningsworth, A. (1995). Choosing Your Coursebook. Oxford: Heinemann.
Curriculum Development Council (CDC) (1999). English Language for Secondary Schools (Secondary 1 –5). Hong Kong: Education Department.
Curriculum Development Council (CDC) (2002). English Language Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 3). Hong Kong: Education Department.
Curriculum Development Council (CDC) & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) (2007). English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary4 – 6). Hong Kong: Education and Manpower Bureau.
Dempster, F. N. (1987). Effects of variable encoding and spaced presentation on vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology,79, 162-170.
Ellis, N. C. (1994). Vocabulary acquisition: The implicit ins and outs of explicit cognitive mediation. In N. C. Ellis (ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press, 211-282.
Ellis, N. C. & Beaton, A. (1993). Factors affecting the learning of foreign language vocabulary: Imagery keyword mediators and phonological short-term memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46A(3), 533-558.
Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A. (1994). Classroom interaction, comprehension, and the acquisition of L2 word meanings. Language Learning, 44, 449-491.
Engber, C. A. (1995). The relationships of lexical proficiency to the quality of ESL compositions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4(2), 139-155.
Fan, M. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. The Modern Language Journal. 87(2), 222-241.
Fowle, C. (2002). Vocabulary notebooks: implementation and outcomes. ELT Journal. 56(4): 380-388.
Goulden, R., Nation, I. S. P. & Read, J. (1990). How large can a receptive vocabulary be? Applied Linguistics, 11, 341-363.
Gu, Y. (2005). Vocabulary Learning Strategies in the Chinese ELF Context. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic.
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Joe, A. (1995). Task-based tasks and incidental vocabulary learning: A case study. Second Language Research. 11(2), 159-177.
Joe, A., Nation, I. S. P., & Newton, J. (1996). Vocabulary learning and speaking activities. English Teaching Forum. 34(1), 2-7.
Knight, S. M. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. Modern Language Journal, 78, 285-299.
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Laufer, B. & Nation, I. S. P. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: lexical richness in L2 written productions. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 307-322.
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach – The State of ELT and a Way Forward. Sussex: Language Teaching Publications.
Lewis, M. (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
McCarthy, M. (1990). Vocabulary. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
McCarthy, M. & O’Dell, F. (1994). English Vocabulary in Use: Upper Intermediate. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
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Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
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Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Does reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? An empirical study. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 121-140.