Chapter 8 - Learning
I. Introduction
______- is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
-Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed, instinctive behaviors of animals.
-We learn by association; our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.
______
- learning to associate one stimulus with another
(______).
______
- learning to associate a response with a consequence
(______).
II. Classical Conditioning
Russian physiologist ______clarified classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists.
-Pavlov observed dogs salivating at the mere sight of food & when it was placed in their mouth
-He believed that dogs could be trained, or conditioned, to salivate when exposed to an external stimulus
______is the ______stage in classical conditioning in which an ______between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
-In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the ______
stimulus (CS) needs tocome______the
unconditioned stimulus.
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to ______and eventually causes ______.
-In other words, we ______between the two stimuli!
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) ______, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
-In other words, we ______between the two stimuli again!
______- tendency to respond to ______to the CS.
______- ability to ______a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
______showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound).
-Animals learn so that they can ______to their environment. Classical conditioning works best when it is similar to a ______(we have an innate preparedness to associate certain stimuli).
______“Baby Albert” Experiment
______, a colleague of Watson’s, ______(systematic desensitization) children from their fears by ______ a rabbit (and other things) closer to them while eating.
III. Operant Conditioning
Edward Thorndike’s ______(trial & error) stated that ______is likely to occur again.
______hypothesized that rats could be trained to perform specific behaviors in order to receive a food ______.
-He placed birds/rats into what is technically called an “______” (“Skinner box”) in which the animal would press a bar to receive food.
-Skinner “ ______” the animal to get closer to the bar before giving it food. For example, if the animal approached the bar, he might initially give it a pellet of food for getting close to the bar. Eventually, the animal learned that it had to press the bar in order to get any food.
-The food was a “______,” since it reinforced the animal’s behavior of stepping closer to and eventually pressing the bar.
______- the operant conditioning procedure in which ______behavior towards the desired target behavior through ______(getting the animal closer and closer to the behavior that you want them to carry out).
______- any event that ______the behavior it follows.
- ______- a
______reinforcing stimulus like food, drink, sleep or sex.
- ______- a______reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through ______with the primary reinforcer(money, stickers, etc.). Often used in “token economy” therapies.
-______- occurs______after a behavior (Dr. Hand thanked me “for coming to school”).
-______- is ______in time for a certain behavior (Cobb County sends my paycheck at the end of the month).
- ______- reinforces the desired response
______it occurs.Acquisition is ______, but extinguishes ______.
-______- reinforces a response only ______the time. This results in ______acquisition,but shows ______to extinction later on.
______- an aversive event (unwanted consequence) that ______the behavior it follows.
- Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment, it can lead to negative effects.
- Effective punishment needs:
- To be swift & consistently applied
- To be limited in duration & intensity
- To target the behavior not the character
- To lack mixed messages
- To be more negative than positive
KEEP IN MIND…
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward.
-Tolman noted that rats seem to develop ______, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).
-Such cognitive maps are based on ______, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (although we constantly are leaning).
-______- the desire to perform a behavior for its ______(some people like to take certain classes because it interests them).
-______- the desire to perform a behavior due to promised ______or threats of ______(some people like to take certain classes because of the “quality point” or that it may “look good” on transcripts).
-______- animals and people will tend to do less desirable things to get to do more desirable things (rewards are relative though).
IV. Observational/Social Learning
Higher animals, especially humans, learn through ______and ______others (______). In other words, we copy each other!
-Learning by observation begins early in life.
-______“Bobo” doll study in 1961 indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.
- Research shows that viewing media violence can lead to an increased expression of aggression.
- His research demonstrated ______and ______
modeling of behavior.
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