Driven to Distraction
Driving and cell phones don’t mix.
Adapted from: American Psychological Association, February 1, 2006
1. Cell phones may be convenient but there's one place they seem to do more harm than good – and that's behind the steering wheel. Psychological research is showing that when drivers use cell phones, whether hand-held or hands-off, their attention to the road drops and driving skills become even worse than if they had too much to drink. Research has found that cell-phone use isassociated with a four-fold increase in the odds of /
getting into an accident – a risk comparable to that of driving with blood alcohol at the legal limit.
2. But cell phones aren't the only cause for concern. A number of newly emerging, even more exciting and time-consuming in-car technologies, such as navigational displays and Internet browsers, although developed to make long rides more productive, also present new challenges for drivers. Cognitive psychologists and engineers are teaming up to document how these new gadgets affect driving performance and traffic safety.
The Research Studies
3. David Strayer, PhD, of the Applied Cognition Laboratory at the University of Utah,has studied cell-phone impact for more than five years. His lab, using driving simulators, has obtained scientific evidence that cell-phone conversations disrupt driving performance. Human attention has a limited capacity, and studies suggest that talking on the phone causes a kind of “inattention blindness” to the driving scene.
4. In one study, when drivers talked on a cell phone, their reactions to events (such as braking for a traffic light or a slowing vehicle) were significantly slower than when they were not talking on the cell phone. Sometimes, drivers were so impaired that they were involved in a traffic accident. Listening to the radio or books on tape did not impair driving performance, suggesting that listening alone is not enough to interfere. However, being involved in a conversation takes attention away from the ability to process information about the driving environment well enough to safely operate a motor vehicle.
5. According to Strayer's laboratory research, cell-phone drivers were also more likely to miss traffic signals and often failed to see billboards and other signs. A special eye-tracking device measured where, exactly, drivers looked while driving. Even when drivers directed their gaze at objects on the road (during simulations), they still didn't “see” them because their attention – during a cell-phone call – was elsewhere.
6. Further evidence came from a 2003 Spanish study that found, in a rare experiment using drivers in real cars on actual highways, that complex phone conversations affected visual scanning and reduced a driver's ability to detect, discriminate among and respond to visual targets – by as much as 30 percent. In this study, by psychologists Miguel Angel Recarte Goldarecena, PhD, of the Universidad Complutense in Madrid, and Luis Miguel Nunes González, PhD, of Spain's Administration for Traffic Safety, found equivalent effects from hands-free phone and live in-car conversations. In a 2002 study, they had found that simple conversations could be held with no interference. They concluded that the complexity of the conversation was what compromised concentration, whether the driver talked by phone or to a passenger. Thus, distractions inside one's own head can be just as disruptive as environmental distractions.
7. Strayer and his colleagues compared data for hand-held and hands-free devices and found no difference in the impairment to driving.This, they say, raises doubts about the scientific basis for laws that prohibit only hand-held cell phones.
8. The Utah lab is also measuring the increased risk associated with cell-phone use relative to other real-world activities – most recently, alcohol consumption. Disturbingly, forthcoming research will show that talking on a cell phone (even hands-free) hurts driving even more than driving with blood alcohol at the legal limit. When talking on a cell phone, drivers using a simulator were slower to brake and had more “accidents” than when they weren't on the phone. Their impairment level was actually a little higher than that of people intoxicated by alcohol.
Why Does This Happen?
9. Strayer's lab is building a theoretical account for why cell phone use disrupts driving performance. So far, the evidence points to conversations forcing drivers to withdraw their attention from the visual scene.
10. Frank Durso, PhD, with Kerstan Mork and John Morris of TexasTechUniversity, are also attempting to define the nature of the distraction. Is it a specific cognitive function? Is it attention, a broader enabler of cognitive function? More concretely, is it a conflict between the mental image and the current situation, such as an “out-of-the-car” conversation that puts drivers somewhere else mentally? The answer could help policy makers determine how to suitably regulate these devices. With or without legislation, says Durso, it's important to raise drivers' consciousness about the dangers of distraction.
From Research to Real Life
11. First and most obviously, drivers can make themselves, their passengers and other people on the road safer by putting down their cell phones. The standard advice is to park in a safe place to make or take calls; at the very least, pull over to the curb or a highway shoulder if phone communication is truly urgent.
12. Second, drivers should also be aware that whether a cell phone is hands-on or hands-free makes no difference in terms of mental distraction. According to the research, the mental activity of conversation, whether in person or over the phone, is what takes one's mind off the road. What happens in the head happens regardless of what happens with the hands.
13. Third, drivers tempted to talk on the mobile might ask themselves if they would drive drunk. If not, they should put down the phone.
14. Fourth, drivers can pay attention to the nature of distraction in the car – with heightened awareness that new devices aimed at a better driving “experience” can have unintended side effects. Multitasking in or out of the car has been shown in many psychological experiments to divide attention and limit working memory – both essential to safe driving. Especially in the car, drivers should aim for the thoughtful use of any new devices or gadgets.
15. Finally, drivers need to remember that warnings (and, in some places, legislation) about cell-phones and driving arise from studies of drivers of varied ages, educational levels, and years of driving. Sensitivity to distraction while driving has nothing to do with smarts or skill. In fact, psychologist Durso and his doctoral student Andy Dattelpoint out that although experts can do many things automatically, detecting hazards is not among them. Thus, Durso says, “anything that disrupts resource management can have consequences even in experts.”
Sources & Further Reading
Chapman, P. R., & Underwood, G. (1998). Visual search of driving situations: Danger and experience. Perception, 27, 951-964.
Crundall, D. & Underwood, G. (1998). The effects of experience and processing demands on visual information acquisition in drivers. Ergonomics, 41, 448-458.
Duncan, J., Williams, P., & Brown, I. (1991). Components of driving skill: Experience does not mean expertise. Ergonomics, 34, 919-937.
Durso, F. T., & Dattel, A. R. (in press). Expertise in transportation. In K. A. Ericcson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, Cambridge University Press.
Groeger, J. A. (2000). Understanding driving: Applying cognitive psychology to a complex everyday task. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
McCarley, J.S., Vais, M.J., Pringle, H., Kamer, A.F., Irwin, D.E., & Strayer, D.L. (2004). Conversation disrupts change detection in complex traffic scenes. Human Factors, 46, 424-436.
Nunes, L. M. and Recarte, M.A. (2002). Cognitive demands of hands-free- phone conversation while driving. Transportation Research, Part F, Special Issue: Eye Movements, Attention and Driving Behaviour, 133 -144.
Recarte Goldarecena, M. A. & Nunes González, L. M. (2003). Mental workload while driving: Effects on visual search, discrimination and decision making. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9(2).
Redelmeier, D. A. & Tibshirani, R. J. (1997). Association between cellular-telephone calls and motor vehicle collisions. The New England Journal of Medicine, 336, 453-458.
Shinar, D., Meir, M., & Ben-Shoham, I. (1998). How automatic is manual gear shifting? Human Factors, 40, 647-654.
Sohn, Y. W., & Doane, S. M. (2003). Roles of working memory capacity and long-term working memory skill in complex task performance. Memory & Cognition, 31, 458-466.
Strayer, D. L., & Johnston, W. A. (2001). Driven to distraction: Dual-task studies of simulated driving and conversing on a cellular phone. Psychological Science, 12, 462-466.
Strayer, D. L., Drews, F. A. & Johnston, W. A. (2002). W hy do cell phone conversations interfere with driving? Proceedings of the 81st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Strayer, D. L., Drews, F. A. & Johnston, W. A. (2003). Cell phone induced failures of visual attention during simulated driving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9, 23-23.
Strayer, D. L., Drews, F. A., & Johnston, W. A. (2003). Are we being driven to distraction? Public Policy Perspectives, Vol. 16, 1-2. (Published by the Center for Public Policy and Administration, University of Utah).
Strayer, D. L., Drews, F. A. & Crouch, D. J. (2003). Fatal distraction? A comparison of the cell-phone driver and the drunk driver . In D. V. McGehee, J. D. Lee, & M. Rizzo (Eds.) Driving Assessment 2003: International Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design. Published by the Public Policy Center, University of Iowa (pp. 25-30).
Driven to Distraction – Exercises
Exercises adapted from Dr. Anna Lyubman
I. Pre-Reading
1. Discuss: What might affect your driving? /2.Below is a list of factors that may impair driving performance. In groups, rate them on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 = the weakest effect; 5 = the strongest effect)
Factor / Weak Effect ------Strong Effect- alcohol consumption
- using hand-held cell phones
- using hands-free cell phones
- texting while driving
- using a navigational device (GPS)
- listening to the news
- listening to music
- listening to an audio book
- talking with someone in the car
- not having enough sleep
- poor road conditions
II.Close Reading Questions
1.Complete the sentence below to explain the comparison in paragraph 1.
The writer compares the effects of ______and ______on ______.
2.Besides cell phones, what other modern devices can affect safe driving?
______
3.a. Skim paragraphs 3–6. Which two groups of studies are mentioned in these paragraphs?
Study 1: ______Study 2: ______
b. What is the purpose of these studies? The purpose of these studies is to investigate ______
c. Do these studies agree or disagree with each other? Agree / Disagree
d. Which words helped you find the answer? ______
4.According to Strayer’s research (par. 4-5), what are some possible negative consequences of driving while talking on a cell phone? (List 3)
______
______
______
5.According to Strayer’s research (par. 5), does keeping your eyes on the road ensure safe driving? YES / NO
Explain.
______
______
6.What is the main difference in the methodology of Strayer’s study and the 2003 Spanish study?
Whereas Strayer conducted his research in a ______, the Spanish study was done ______
7.According to thestudies in par. 3-6, what does NOT affect driving?
a. ______
b. ______
8.a. Why do some researchers question the value of the laws that only forbid use of hand-held cell phones?
______
______
b. Infer: What kind of law would these researchers recommend?
______
9.Complete the sentence by circling the correct word:
According to par. 8, alcohol consumption at the legal limit impairs driving THE SAME AMOUNT AS /MORE THAN / LESSTHANtalking on a hands-free cell phone.
10.What is the main reason for why talking on a cell phone impairs driving?
Complete the sentence below:
Cell phone use disrupts______(one word).
11.a. What do the questions in paragraph 10 have in common?
They are all about ______
b. How will answering these questions be helpful?
The answers will help ______to ______
______
12.a. Skim the section “From Research to Real Life.” What is the purpose of this section?
______
b. How many points does the writer make in this section? ______
13. What can we conclude based on paragraphs 11–15? Put a check next to all the valid conclusions.
a. We should park in a safe place in order to use a cell phone. ______
b. We should always pull over to the curb or a highway shoulder to talk on a cell phone. ______
c. It is safe to talk on a hands-free cell phone since it doesn’t distract our attention. ______
d. The impact of cell phones on driving is comparable to the impact of alcohol on driving. ______
e. We shoulduse devices that improve our driving experience. ______
f. A person’s ability to detect distraction and hazards depends on his/heryears of driving experience. ______
g. Cell phone conversations can disrupt driving performance regardless of a person’s age, education, intelligence or skills. ______
III. Post Reading Activity
Conduct a survey on the use of cell phones while driving. Find at least 5 participants. Bring the results of your survey to class and be ready to discuss them. You may use some or all of the questions below.
Cell Phones - Questionnaire
1.Do you own a cell phone? YES NO
2.Do you drive? YES NO
*If you don’t drive, answer the questions below pretending that you do drive.
3.Do you have a “hands-free” device (דיבורית) in your car? YES NO
4a.If you answered “YES” to question 3, how often do you talk on your cellphone while you drive? a. often b. sometimes c. never
4b.If you answered “NO” to question 3, how often do you talk on your cellphone while you drive? a. often b. sometimes c. never
5.Does talking on the phone while driving interfere with your ability to drive?
a.it rarely / never interferesb. it usually / always interferes
c. it only interferes if I am holding the phone
6.Which of the following activities interfere with your ability to drive?
a. talking with a friendb. listening to the radio
c. putting on makeup / brushing haird. eating / drinkinge. thinking
7.In your opinion, why do cell phone conversations interfere with driving?
______
8.In your opinion, do cell phone conversations interfere with driving more than conversations with a passenger? Why or why not?
______
Driven to Distraction– Vocabulary
Find and underline the following words in the text.
Word / Also in par. # / Word / Also in par. #Paragraph 2 / Paragraph5
- concern (n)
- time-consuming (adj)
consume (v.) / Paragraph 6
- to document (v)
- performance (n) /
perform (v) / Paragraph 7
15. prohibit (v.)
Paragraph3
- impact (n)
- evidence (n.)
- disrupt (v.)/ disruptive
Paragraph 14
Paragraph 4 / 17. unintended (adj.)/
8. impair (v.)
impairment (n.) / 8 / intention (n.) / intend (v.)/
intentionally(adv.)
9. involve (v.) / 18. essential (adj.)
10. interfere (v.) / / 19. aimed (at), aim (for)(v.)
interference (n.) / 6
11. to process (v.) / Paragraph 15
20. varied (adj.)
Exercise 1:Use your knowledge of the words on the vocabulary list to do the exercise below.
1.Give an example of a time-consuming activity.
______
2.The class consisted completely of male engineering students, but their ages and cultural backgrounds varied.
Was the class homogeneous or heterogeneous in terms of the ages and cultural backgrounds of the students?
Homogeneous / Heterogeneous
3.Cross out the word that doesn’t belongfrom the list of words below. Explain your choice.
impair improve harm disrupt
Explanation: ______
4.Complete the sentence: The university English course aims at ______
______
5.Smoking is prohibited in this restaurant.
Should you smoke in the restaurant?
Yes / No
6.Anyone can apply for the job regardless of previous experience. This means that:
a. The job is open even to people with no previous experience.
b. The job is open only to people who have previous experience.
7.Give an example of a cause for concern in your life. ______
______
8.Complete the sentence below with an appropriate word from the list.
The investigators ______the results of their amazing experiment in a scientific article.
9.According to research studies, heat negatively affects students’ performance on tests whereas cold can improve it. The word “performance” in this context means
a. presentation
b. how well something is done
c. show
10.a. Read the following sentence from the article:
“…Being involved in a conversation takes attention away from the ability to process information about the driving environment well enough to safely operate a motor vehicle.”
What is the function (part of speech) of the word “process” in this sentence?
a. noun b. adjective c. verb d. adverb
What does the word mean? ______
b. Now read the following sentence:
Many researchers agree that the process of data collection is one of the most time-consuming but also exciting parts of their work.
What are the function and the meaning of the word “process” in this sentence?
Function: a. noun b. adjective c. verb d. adverb
Meaning: ______
11.Complete the sentence below:
I would never wantto be involved in ______
12.Choose the appropriate reaction to the following sentence:
“Youwere here all day, and you really interfered!”
a. “I am glad I could help.”
b. “But I only tried to be helpful!”
13. What tool would you use to measure the length of a piece of paper?
______
14. Complete the following sentences with the words from the list.
Though deep in her thoughts, Jane suddenly became conscious of astrange noise coming from the street. This unexpected ______interfered with her ______to finish her work on her research paper before the kids arrived home from school.
Exercise II: Synonyms
1.Which word on the vocabulary list means the same as ‘influence’ / ‘effect’?
______
2.Which word on the vocabulary list means the same as ‘tool’ / ‘gadget?
______
3.Which word on the vocabulary list means the same as ‘proof / facts / indication’?
______
4.Which word on the vocabulary list means the same as ‘necessary / crucial / important’?______
______Driven to Distraction / 1