In 2001, the United States Surgeon General released a call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. The report urged individuals and groups to build physical activity into regular routines. Current rates of obesity and inactivity remain high, despite this call for action. The majority of trips taken in the United States today are by automobile; replacing this travel method with active transport will increase physical activity and healthy lifestyles. Active transport is when an individual walks, bikes, or utilizes other non-motorized transportation to get from one destination to another out of utility. This paper examines environmental factors related to active transport in the forms of walking and cycling such as, street connectivity, land use, safety, urbanity, design, and others. Methods used to study these factors are discussed, such as the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) to track active transport and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map environmental factors. Case studies in Nashville, Orlando, Portland, Seattle, and Somerville illustrate that community change, based on these factors is possible. Evidence from the literature suggests that increasing street connectivity, mixed use, and safety increases active transport in the community. Urbanity is also positively related to active transport behavior. Design and other factors can be difficult to measure, but studies have shown a relationship between these factors and increased levels of active transport. Changes to local budgets and zoning laws should be considered to improve the health of communities. This topic is significant to the field of public health because implementing evidence based environmental factors to increase active transport has the potential to reduce morbidity and mortality. Finding ways to increase these environmental factors in United States communities should be a priority in order to increase active transport and improve health.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 BACKGROUND 3
2.1 Urban SPRAWL 4
2.2 Travel & Commuting 6
2.3 URBAN PLANNING 7
2.3.1 Urban Movements 9
2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION 10
3.0 METHODS 12
4.0 RESULTS 13
4.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 13
4.1.1 Audit Tools vs. Existing GIS Data 13
4.1.2 Tracking Nonmotorized Transport 15
4.1.2.1 Technology Based Tracking 15
4.1.2.2 Tracking Through Self Report 16
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING WALKING FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT 17
4.2.1 Street Connectivity 17
4.2.2 Land Use 18
4.2.3 Safety 19
4.2.4 Urbanity 20
4.2.5 Other 22
4.3 ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING CYCLING FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT 22
4.3.1 Physical Factors 23
4.3.2 Perceived Factors 23
4.4 CASE STUDIES: IMPLEMENTING CHANGE 24
4.4.1 Music City Moves: Nashville, TN 25
4.4.2 Get Active Orlando: Orlando, FL 26
4.4.3 Portland’s Active Living by Design: Portland, OR 27
4.4.4 Active Seattle: Seattle, WA 28
4.4.5 Physical Activity Through Community Design: Somerville, MA 29
5.0 DISCUSSION 30
5.1 IMPLICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORT 30
5.1.1 Street Connectivity 30
5.1.2 Land Use 31
5.1.3 Safety 32
5.1.4 Urbanity 33
5.1.5 Design 34
5.1.6 Other Factors 34
5.2 Lessons From Case Studies 35
5.3 LIMITATIONS 37
6.0 CONCLUSION 39
bibliography 41
List of tables
Table 1. Urban clusters used for urbanity analysis in Portland, OR 21
List of figures
Figure 1. Person trips by mode and walking trips by residential location, 2001 7
Figure 2. Components of a Sense of Place 8
Figure 3. Active Living by Design Community Action Model 24
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1.0 Introduction
As of 2012, 34.9% of Americans over the age of 20 and 16.9% of those ages two to 19 were obese (Ogden, Carrol, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). In 2001, the United States Surgeon General released a call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. The report urged individuals and groups to build physical activity into regular routines, recommending adults get a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate physical activity per day (The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity 2001, 2001). This has not transferred into reality with some studies showing as little as 5% of Americans getting the recommended amount (Berrigan, Pickle, & Dill, 2010). Americans are spending increasing amounts of time in the car, with a 55-minute average for personal travel daily (Brownson, Boehmer, & Luke, 2005). In fact, 86.5% of trips are made by automobile in the United States (Brownson et al., 2005). By increasing walking and cycling trips we can increase activity and create healthier communities.
The main research question is: What factors of the built environment impact active transport in communities? Additional research questions to further explore this relationship are as follows: What factors exist for walking versus cycling? What has been done in existing communities to increase active transport and have they been successful? What future studies or innovations could lead to healthier communities?
This literature synthesis presents an overview of the environmental factors present in the built environment that influence active transport. Measurement tools, case studies, and factors related to walking and cycling for utility will be analyzed. Recommendations for continued research and community change in the United States are made based on the findings of this literature synthesis. Urban sprawl, automobile use, urban planning, and urban planning movements all speak to the need for improved built environments that foster active transport behavior.
2.0 BACKGROUND
Regular and consistent physical activity in adults can reduce the risk of disability and premature death caused by multiple conditions (Brownson et al., 2005). In addition, psychological and sociological benefits of regular physical activity are widely recognized (Collins, Al-Nakeeb, Nevill, & Lyons, 2012; The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity 2001, 2001). Physical inactivity has been found to be an independent risk factor for chronic disease; those who are inactive are at a two to three times greater risk of premature mortality than those who are physically active (Geller, 2003). The result of these risks can be seen globally, with the rise of obesity and lifestyle related diseases (Collins et al., 2012). In the United States between 2011 and 2012, 34.9% of adults age 20 and older were obese and 16.9% of those age two to 19 years were obese (Ogden et al., 2014). These percentages have continued to rise, and in 2008 more than 10% of the world’s population was obese according to the World Health Organization (WHO) (Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010, 2011). In some studies, the percentage of adults in the United States getting the recommended amount of physical activity (a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate or greater intensity, five times per week) has been as low as 5% (Berrigan et al., 2010). Physical inactivity is fostered by the availability and convenience of automobiles as well as environments that are not conducive to walking or cycling, an example of this is an urban sprawl environment.
2.1 Urban SPRAWL
Many urban residents are choosing to live further away from city centers, in areas that are considered urban sprawl. The term “sprawl” was first used by city planner Earle Draper in 1937 (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). An urban sprawl environment is characterized by scattered development, commercial strip development, uniform low-density development, or single use development (Brownson et al., 2005). In addition, areas of urban sprawl have separated homes, shops, and workplaces, large blocks, and a lack of town centers or community gathering spaces (Geller, 2003). This type of environment is known to correlate with automobile dependency and sedentary lifestyles (Siu et al., 2012). Urban sprawl is associated with increased air pollution, pedestrian injuries, and decrease in social capital (Frumkin, 2002).
Ozone and particulate matter are associated with higher incidence and severity of respiratory symptoms resulting in increased hospitalization and absenteeism (Frumkin, 2002). The elderly, the very young, and those with cardiopulmonary diseases, such as asthma, are especially susceptible to the negative effects of air pollution (Frumkin, 2002). Asthma affects approximately 17 million adults and more than four million children in the United States, leaving these individuals at a greater risk (Geller, 2003).
Pedestrian injuries and fatalities are more likely in urban sprawl areas with multiple lanes of traffic, high speeds, no sidewalks, and long distances between intersections (Frumkin, 2002). In the United States one in eight automobile related fatalities is accounted for by pedestrians (Frumkin, 2002).
A loss of social capital has been felt in areas of urban sprawl. Social capital is the network of relationships within a society that shape the number and quality of social interactions (Frumkin, 2002). Increased commuting times result in less time to spend with family and friends or on community activities (Frumkin, 2002). Housing developments tend to contain similar sized houses of similar prices and low heterogeneity (Frumkin, 2002). This adds to the problem of income inequality and forces individuals to change neighborhoods if they want to increase or decrease the size of their homes. The inability to remain in a neighborhood through multiple life stages decreases community cohesiveness and detracts from social capital. Lack of social capital has been associated with higher mortality from all causes, independent of income, in the United States and Great Britain (Frumkin, 2002).
Even in 1937, when the term “sprawl” was coined, it was recognized to be economically wasteful and socially disadvantageous. Urban sprawl resulted from multiple factors including car purchases, large public investment in road infrastructure, limited public investment in central cities, and low cultural barriers to household mobility (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). A low cultural barrier to household mobility refers to a cultural tendency to leave an area rather than attempt to fix community problems. This weak cultural bond between an individual and their neighborhood or community is capitalized on in the notion of suburbia and urban sprawl. The advent of the automobile and lower transportation costs made moving out of central cities, and into suburban areas possible. The percent of Americans living in urban areas has skyrocketed since 1790 when less than 5% were urban inhabitants (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). This number had increased to over 50% in 1920. By 2000, 79% of Americans lived in urban areas, and this number is expected to increase with a global trend toward urban living (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). Central cities are heavily populated and are located in the middle of metropolitan areas. Those living in central cities, in addition to those in suburban areas count toward the population of urban areas. Despite an increase in urban population overall, the population within central cities has decreased from 65% of urban inhabitants in 1950 to only 35% in 1990 (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). Meanwhile Western Europe invested in public transportation within cities, central city amenities, and fostered a culture less willing to consider residential mobility (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). As a result, Europe has urban areas that continue to be centralized. Development decisions in the United States have resulted a landscape characterized by urban sprawl, with one in two Americans living in the suburbs (Frumkin, 2002).
2.2 Travel & Commuting
Adults in the United States spend an average of 55 minutes per day in a personal vehicle for travel (approximately 29 miles) (Brownson et al., 2005). With more people commuting, it is important to realize the health risks associated with so much time in a car. Commuting has been linked to back pain, cardiovascular disease, and stress (Frumkin, 2002). High traffic volume and traffic distance are associated with road rage, an event where an angry driver tries to injure another driver after a traffic dispute (Frumkin, 2002). Vehicle ownership and daily miles traveled in personal vehicles have been increasing since the 1950s (Brownson et al., 2005). As seen in Figure 1, automobile is by far the most common form of transit used in the United States, with only 8.6% of people walking, and 1.7% who responded “other” (Brownson et al., 2005). These numbers are much lower than other developed countries such as the Netherlands, where 30% of trips are on bicycles and 18% are on foot (Frumkin, 2002). Physical activity both for leisure and transport has been declining in the United States (Brownson et al., 2005). Because of this, and the increase in obesity and related diseases, there has been a recent push for all fields of study to consider their role in perpetuating positive or negative lifestyle choices.
(Metropolitan Statistical Area; MSA)
(Brownson et al., 2005)
Figure 1. Person trips by mode and walking trips by residential location, 2001
2.3 URBAN PLANNING
Urban design focuses on the function and appeal of a space through the design of physical elements (Handy, Boarnet, Ewig, & Killingsworth, 2002). Urban design and urban planning are utilized when creating or revitalizing existing spaces where people live, engage with each other, or engage with the physical space (Montgomery, 1998). The field of urban design is concerned with the appearance, function, and arrangement of these spaces. The goal is to create a space that has a sense of place. A sense of place is created through the merging of activity, meaning, and physical setting (Montgomery, 1998). The concept of activity is derived from vitality and diversity. Vitality is the pedestrian flow throughout the day, the uptake of facilities, the number of events throughout the year, and the general extent to which a place feels lively (Montgomery, 1998). Diversity refers to variety in land use and ownership, business types, hours of operation, green spaces, design styles, and ownership cost (Montgomery, 1998). Meaning is a combination of identity (what a place is actually like) and how a place is perceived. This perception will be filtered through individual and cultural values, beliefs, and ideas (Montgomery, 1998). Good physical settings fill the needs of their inhabitants in a safe way to allow for maximum scope of activity. The space should be well defined, understandable, and accessible to all ages and backgrounds. Together these factors combine to create a sense of place, as illustrated in Figure 2.
(Montgomery, 1998)
Figure 2. Components of a Sense of Place
The field of urban planning utilizes multiple terms to describe the built environment. Land use describes the distribution, density, and location of activities or uses of a space (Handy et al., 2002). Transportation system refers to the physical infrastructure such as roads, sidewalks and paths, as well as how they function (Handy et al., 2002). These elements combine to create what is referred to as the built environment (Keast, Carlson, Chapman, & Michael, 2010).