The Four Rhetorical Types of Sentences
1. Declarative: a simple statement of fact, belief, or opinion
I am tired. The test was difficult. Paul is my favorite Beatle.
2. Interrogative: a direct question
Is it soup yet? Do you like professional wrestling? Can Susie play?
3. Imperative: a command
Open the door. Fetch me a cold beer. Light my cigar. Gimme fifty pushups.
4. Exclamatory: any of the above amplified
I hate foosball! He did what?! Do it right now! Gimme a break!
The Four Grammatical Types of Sentences
1. Simple: one main clause, no subordination
Tom hit the ball. Bill is my best friend. Sonny Bono is my favorite person.
2. Compound: more than one main clause, no subordination
I went to the store, but he stayed home. Bill lost his hat, Tom lost his shoes, and I lost my shirt.
3. Complex: one main clause, and at least one subordinate clause
I flunked him because he was late. Since it was raining, she took the coat that he offered her.
4. Compound-complex: more than one main clause, and at least one subordinate clause
I left early, but he stayed behind because he was sick.
I saw that they had finished, but I wouldn't let them go.
Because Tom was late, he had to stay, and I waited for him.
These all function the same way:
Word--the basic grammatical unit functioning as one part of speech
Phrase--a group of words functioning as one part of speech
Clause--a group of words containing a subject and a verb and functioning as one part of speech
RelativePronouns--introduce noun and adjective clauses
who (ever)what (ever)which (ever)
whom (ever)whose (ever)that
RelativeAdverbs--introduce noun and adjective clauses
where (ever)when (ever) how (ever)why
SubordinatingConjunctions--always introduce adverbial clauses
afteras much asifso thatuntilwhile
althoughas thoughin order that whenthan
as becauseinasmuch asthoughwhenever
as ifbeforeprovided thattillwhere
as long ashowsinceunlesswherever
EllipticalClauses are incomplete. They have some words missing but "understood.”
"My wife likes pizza better than me” means "My wife likes pizza better than my wife likes me,” whereas "My wife likes pizza better than I” means "My wife likes pizza better than I like pizza.”
The Comma
I. Use commas after introductory adverbial clauses, participial phrases, adverbial
infinitive phrases, or several prepositional phrases.
Adverbial clause: "Since it was raining, I took the car.”
NOTE: If the main clause precedes the adverbial clause, the two are not usually
separated by a comma, unless the main clause contains a negative:
"I took the car since it was raining,” but "I didn’t take the job because of the money”
can mean an entirely different thing from "I didn’t take the job, because of the
money.”
Infinitive phrases: "To get ahead in life, one must work hard.”
Try to avoid splitting an infinitive: "to really try” "to ever lose” "to always look”
Prepositional phrases: Usually a single introductory prepositional phrase will
require no comma, but if it is used parenthetically, or if the comma would make the
meaning clearer, use one.
"On the good days he felt no pain whatsoever.”
"In the spring of the year before last, I took up golf.”
"Of course, it’s your decision.” "In fact, you asked me to.”
NOTE: Do not use a comma after introductory prepositional phrases or transitional
expressions if the independent clause which follows begins with a verb:
"In the other corner, was the nightstand.” "After that, were the fireworks.”
"Next, was the time we went swimming.” "Second, is the fact that he cheated.”
II. Use commas to set off expressions which interrupt the sentence.
A. Words in direct address are set off by commas.
"Susie, your sister is calling you.” "Do we agree, men?” "I think, Bill, that she is
doing the right thing.”
- A direct quotation is set off by commas if the quoted material is an independent
clause.
"I’ll be there,” she said. Sue told him, "I think I’ll stay here.”
Queen Victoria said she was "not amused.” (Do not use a comma here--the quoted
material is not an independent clause.)
NOTE: Periods and commas ALWAYS precede the closed quote. Colons and semicolons NEVER precede the closed quote. Periods will precede the closed
parenthesis if the enclosed material is an independent clause but will follow the
closed parenthesis if it is not. Question and exclamation marks will come before or
after the closed quote, depending on whether they pertain to the "frame” or the quoted material.
Did he really say, "That was stupid”?
I wanted to strangle him when he said, "Your services will no longer be needed”!
- Certain words, such as "why,” "oh,” "yes,” "no,” and "well,” are followed by a
comma when they are used at the beginning of a sentence.
- Appositives are words or phrases which follow a noun or pronoun and mean the
same thing. Appositives identify, explain, or give additional information about the
nouns they follow.
"Warren Christopher, the Secretary of State, had stern warnings for the Serbians.”
"Bosnia, a small country in central Europe, has been the site of much suffering.”
When an appositive is practically a part of the word it modifies, no comma is
necessary.
”my uncle Fred” "your friend Mildred” "the American author Dos Passos”
"the year 1995” "the word inenubilable” "the name Pavlov”
- Parenthetical expressions are set off with commas (one if they are used at the
beginning or end of a sentenceand two if they are used within the sentence).
Here are some common parenthetical expressions. However, this is not a complete
list, and these are not always used parenthetically.
after allfor examplenaturally
as a matter of facthowevernevertheless
anywayI believe (feel, suspect, etc.) next
by the wayin facton the other hand
consequentlyin the first placesecond
firstincidentallytherefore
- Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions ("and,” "or,” "nor,” "for,” "so,” "yet,”
and "but”) when they join independent clauses.
"This little piggy went to market, but this little piggy stayed home.”
NOTE: If the independent clauses are very short and closely related in thought, the
comma may be omitted if the meaning is clear without it.
"You sing and I’ll dance.”
NOTE ON THE PREVIOUS NOTE: This exception will not be allowed in papers
written for this class.
G.Use commas to set off every item after the first item in dates and addresses.
The month and day are considered one unit, as are the street name and number and
the state and the zip code.
"President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963.”
"Friday, July 17, 1981, was the date of the skywalk disaster at the Hyatt Regency
in Kansas City, Missouri.”
"He lived at 1528 North Little York, Houston, Texas, for three years.”
NOTE: When two items in a date or address are joined by a preposition, it takes the
place of the comma.
"Our new store is at 2305 Noland Road in Independence, Missouri.”
Also, when only the month and year are used in an adjective sense, no comma is
used.
"the March 1985 issue of Playboy” "our August '87 conference”
By the same token, when only one item in a date or address is given, no comma
follows it.
"April 21 is my birthday.”
Addendum: Do not use a comma between a month and a year or season and year. Do not use commas in dates arranged day, month, year.
H. Place commas after the salutation of most letters and after the close of any letter.
"Dear Sir,” "Dear Bill,”"Sincerely,”"Yours,”
- Non-restrictive clauses are set off with commas. Non-restrictive clauses are
adjective clauses which describe, explain, or add information, but which are not
essential to the meaning of the sentence; indeed, the sentence will mean the same
thing if the non-restrictive clause is omitted entirely. A sentence containing a non-
restrictive clause may be transformed into a compound sentence and retain its
intended meaning; a sentence containing a restrictive clause may not.
"Bill, who is one of my students, was awarded the scholarship.”
("Bill was awarded the scholarship.”—clause omitted)
("Bill is one of my students, and he was awarded the scholarship.”—compound
sentence)
"Tom, who was convicted of tax evasion, was sentenced to five years in prison.”
("Tom was sentenced to five years in prison.”—clause omitted)
("Tom was convicted of tax evasion, and he was sentenced to five years in prison.”—
compound sentence)
"The candidate, who was speaking with energy and conviction, inspired the crowd.”
("The candidate inspired the crowd.”—clause omitted)
("The candidate spoke with energy and conviction, and she inspired the crowd.”—compound sentence)
Restrictive clauses, in contrast, are not set off with commas, because restrictive
clauses define the nouns they modify in a way which is essential to the meaning of
the sentence; the sentence does not mean the same thing without them. Restrictive
clauses answer the questions "Which one or ones?” or "What kind of?”
"All people who advocate welfare reform are racists.”
Delete the adjective clause, and you have "All people are racists,” which is not what
the original sentence intended at all. Nor can we form a compound sentence from it
and maintain the intended meaning.
"All people advocate welfare reform, and they are racists.”
"Everyone convicted of income tax evasion should be sent to jail.”
("Everyone should be sent to jail.”—clause omitted)
("Everyone is convicted of income tax evasion, and he or she should be sent to jail.”—
compound sentence)
NOTE: as a rule, do not place a comma before the relative pronoun "that.” A comma will only precede "that” in a few rare instances, such as when "that” introduces a list
of noun clauses
"I believe that he is guilty, that he should be punished, and that he should be
punished most severely”
or when it follows some type of non-essential element, such as a parenthetical
expression
"I believe, of course, that he is innocent.”
J. Non-restrictive participial phrases are set off with commas.
"Phil, believing his life was in danger, fired back.”—non-restrictive, commas needed
"Everyone who believes in the sanctity of life will agree with me.”—restrictive, no
commas
Non-restrictive participial phrases are set off with commas if they appear at the
beginning of a sentence,
"Smiling broadly, Susan accepted the nomination”
if they split the subject and verb,
"The two boys, shaking with fear and exhaustion, could barely speak”
and if they come at the end of a sentence and are not next to the noun they modify
"We sat comfortably under the lean-to, watching the rain pouring down.”
Participial phrases that come at the end of a sentence and are next to the noun they
modify are not set off with commas
"We watched Tom washing the dishes.”
Beware of dangling participles!!
"We heard thunder driving back from the lake.”
"On Sundays, I shop at Price Chopper. Pushing my cart slowly down the aisles, my
weeks’ wages are quickly spent.”
III. Use commas to separate items in a series.
"He longed for the food, weather, and people of the Gulf Coast.”
A. Do not place a comma before or after a series.
WRONG "She bought several things, such as, a purse, a sweater, and a dress.”
WRONG "Tom, Betty, Bob, and Sue, came over to my house last night.”
B. The abbreviation "etc.” is always followed by a comma unless it occurs at the end of a sentence. You may use "etc.” and "and so on” in informal correspondence or office memos, but not in your papers or in formal writing. Give enough examples to illustrate your meaning and proceed.
C. Do not use commas when all the items in the series are liked with coordinating conjunctions.
"I’m taking math and science and English and accounting this term.”
D. Use commas between adjectives if the word "and” can be placed between them and if they can be reversed.
”He bought a new, bright spring outfit.”
The outfit was new and bright—yes, a comma is need; the outfit was bright and spring--no, a comma would not be appropriate here.
E. Do not separate an adverb from the word it modifies.
"She wore a shocking pink hat.”
"Shocking,” in this case, modifies "pink,” and therefore no comma is used. F. Short main clauses in a series may be separated by commas.
"See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil.” "I came, I saw, I conquered.”
The Semicolon
- Use a semicolon between main clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions if the
two are closely related, if the second clause makes a comment on or explains the first,
or if a special effect is produced which would be missing otherwise.
"I went to school; he did not.”"It was expensive; she wanted it.”
- Use a semicolon between main clauses joined by the following conjunctive adverbs:
accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed,
moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, similarly, still, therefore, thus, for example, for
instance, that is, in fact.
"The restaurant will close at noon; however, I think we’ll make it.”
"I do recall him very well; in fact, he just left my sight.”
C. Use a semicolon among items in a list if any of the items contains commas.
"He wrote letters from What Cheer, Iowa; Dry Prong, Arkansas; Antler, North Dakota;
and Gang Ranch, British Columbia.”
- Use a semicolon and a coordinating conjunction to join two main clauses if either
contains internal punctuation.
"She told me to get lost, to stop calling her, and to give her back her things; but I think
we can work it out.”
NOTE: Use this rule sparingly, if at all
The Colon
A. Use a colon to introduce items in a list, if there is something before the
colon which represents what follows it. Think of a colon as an equal sign in this
application.
NOTE: Never place a colon between a verb and its object or between a preposition and its object.
WRONG: "I need: a pen, a lamp, and a notepad.”
RIGHT: "I need the following items: a pen, a lamp, and a notepad.”
OR "I need a pen, a lamp, and a notepad.”
WRONG: "We opened new shops in: Raytown, St. Joseph, and Des Moines.”
RIGHT: "We opened new shops in the following cities: Raytown, St. Joseph, and Des Moines.”
OR "We opened new shops in Raytown, St. Joseph, and Des Moines.”
B. Use a colon to separate a quote from its introduction.
"After pausing, he said: 'Laugh, and the world laughs with you; cry, and the world laughs at you.’”
C. Use a colon when explaining or restating what came before.
"He had a good reason: he was bankrupt.”
NOTE: A colon is not necessarily followed by an independent clause.
"He had a good reason: bankruptcy.”
D. Use a colon after the salutation of a very formal letter.
Dear Madam President:Gentlemen:
E. Use a colon in time and Biblical notation.
2:35 a.m. Job 3:8
The Dashes
Dashes are not hyphens—they are two dashes with no space between, before, or after.
A. Use the dashes to introduce material interjected into the sentence.
"If the Chiefs can beat the Raiders—and I know they can—they’ll win the Super Bowl.”
B. Use the dashes to introduce a summation or explanation.
"He gave her his heart, his money, his future—everything.”
NOTE: The dashes are especially useful for those who write they way they speak,
who habitually add explanations or elaborations to the ends of their sentences.
"My brother is a real slob—always late, always dirty, always broke.”
WRONG: "My brother is a real slob. Always late, always dirty, always broke.”
WRONG: "My brother is a real slob, always late, always dirty, always broke.”
WRONG: "My brother is a real slob; always late, always dirty, always broke.”
Dashes may be used in place of commas, semicolons, colons, and parentheses in
certain cases, but as with all "unusual” punctuation, do not overuse them.
"Bosnia—a small country in central Europe—has been the site of much suffering.”
"I went to school—he did not.”
"He had good reason—bankruptcy.”
"If the Chiefs can beat the Raiders (and I know they can), they’ll win the Super Bowl.”
Numbers
The numbers one through ten (inclusive) should be spelled out, and numbers greater
than ten should be expressed with the digits. Or you may spell out numbers which can be
written in one or two words, and use the digits to express those requiring three or more
words. However, when numbers are used to express a unit of measurement, such as
percent, miles, days, or gallons, use the digits. In very formal documents and legal
contracts, use both. Do not begin a sentence with digits.
WRONG: "65 percent said they would vote for him.”
RIGHT: "Of those surveyed, 65 percent said they would vote for him.”