Specific Learning Disabilities & Accommodations
EDTE 527
What are learning disabilities?
Learning disabilities are caused by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth and is often hereditary. They affect the way the brain processes information. This processing is the main function involved in learning.
Learning disabilities can impact how someone learns to read, write, hear, speak, and calculate. There are many kinds of learning disabilities and they can affect people differently.
Learning disabilities do not reflect IQ (intelligence quotient) or how smart a person is. Instead, a person with a learning disability has trouble performing specific types of skills or completing a task.
Learning disabilities are not the same as mental or physical disabilities, such as intellectual and developmental disabilities, deafness, or blindness. But, learning disabilities may occur together with mental or physical disabilities.
Children with learning disabilities cannot be identified on the basis of acuity (such as vision or hearing) or other physical signs, nor can they be diagnosed solely based on neurological findings. Learning disabilities are widely regarded as variations on normal development and are only considered disabilities when they interfere significantly with school performance and adaptive functions.
What are the signs and symptoms of learning disabilities?
A delay in achieving certain developmental milestones, when most other aspects of development are normal, could be a sign of a learning disability. Such delays may include problems with language, motor delays, or problems with socialization.
What types of learning disabilities are there?
Learning disabilities can be divided into three broad categories: developmental speech and language disorders, academic skills disorders, and other (such as coordination disorders). Each category includes more specific disorders, which are described below.
Specific Learning Disability: A disorder in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations. Included in this category are expressive writing disorders and other expressive language disorders.
Dyslexia: A person with dyslexia has average to above average intelligence, but has deficits in visual, auditory, or motor process, which interfere with reading and reading comprehension. The individual may also have difficulties with learning to translate printed words into spoken words with ease.
Dyscalculia: A person with dyscalculia has average to above average intelligence, but has difficulty with numbers or remembering facts over a long period of time. Some persons have spatial problems and difficulty aligning numbers into proper columns. Some persons may reverse numbers, and have difficulty in mathematical operations.
Dyspraxia: A person with dyspraxia has problems with messages from the brain being properly transmitted to the body. Though the muscles are not paralyzed or weak, they have problems working well together. Dyspraxia might also cause speech problems, poor posture, poor sense of directions, and/or difficulty with actions such as throwing and catching.
Auditory Perceptual Deficit: A person with auditory perceptual deficit has difficulty receiving accurate information from the sense of hearing (there is no problem with the individual’s hearing, just in how the brain interprets what is heard) and might have problems understanding and remembering oral instructions, differentiating between similar sounds, or hearing one sound over a background noise.
Visual Perceptual Deficit: The individual has difficulties receiving and/or processing accurate information from their sense of sight; might have a problem picking out an object from a background of other objects or seeing things in correct order.
What causes learning disabilities?
Experts have not been able to pinpoint specific medical causes for learning disabilities. Learning disabilities are not caused by economic disadvantage, environmental factors or cultural differences. In fact, according to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2009a), there is frequently no apparent cause for learning disabilities. However, much research points to heredity, problems during the mother’s pregnancy, or incidents after birth such as head injuries, nutritional deprivation, and exposure to toxic substances.
Only qualified professionals who have been trained to identify learning disabilities can perform a formal evaluation to diagnose learning disabilities. Such professionals may be clinical or educational psychologists, school psychologists, neuro-psychologists, or learning disabilities specialists. Adults who suspect they have learning disabilities should seek out professionals who have training or direct experience working with and evaluating adults with learning disabilities (National Center for Learning, 2006b).
What is the treatment for learning disabilities?
While there is no direct cure for a learning disability, early screening and intervention from specialists can often provide great benefits. Early intervention can prevent learning difficulties, thus reducing the number of children requiring special education services.
Under the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, legislators made significant changes in how people with learning disabilities could be identified as eligible for special education services. This reauthorization allows for the optional use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach to determine whether a child has a specific learning disability and may receive special education services. There is evidence that the IQ-discrepancy model normally used is ineffective in identifying all students with learning disabilities; therefore many schools are implementing an RTI approach.
RTI is a tiered approach to educational intervention; the most common is a 3-tier model. The first tier provides high quality reading instruction to all students, with careful progress monitoring by teachers in the classrooms. Tier 2 is the same high quality instruction but with increased intensity for those not progressing well enough. If students do not progress with this more intensive instruction, they are identified for Tier 3, which is targeted special education intervention. Tier 3 students would have full evaluations and the establishment of an Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Most children with learning disabilities are eligible for special assistance at school. An IEP should be developed for students who need special education and related services. An IEP includes specific academic, communication, motor, learning, functional, and socialization goals for a child based on his or her educational needs.
A number of parents' organizations, both national and local, provide information on therapeutic and educational services and how to get these services for a child. Visit for a listing of these organizations.
A disorder that causes problems in speaking, listening, reading, writing, or mathematical ability.
Types of Learning Disabilities and Appropriate Interventions & Accommodations
Here is a chart with specific learning disabilities and their symptoms on the left. On the right hand side of the column are ideas and strategies that a teacher can use to help a student with this disability. It’s important to remember, however, that no two students with the same disability will necessarily have the same problems nor be helped by the same strategies or changes. Because of this, it can be advantageous for the teacher and the student to approach the student’s needs in a problem solving mode and to explore together what helps the student learn better.
SPECIFIC ACCOMMODATIONS & STRATEGIES FOR A VARIETY OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
LEARNING DISABILITY & CHARACTERISTICS / ACCOMMODATIONS FOR SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIESAbstract Reasoning
- Difficulty/Inability to make inferences
- Difficulty/Inability to generate creative solutions to problems
- Difficulty/Inability to transfer generalizations
- Difficulty/Inability to understand relationships
Provide student with list of procedures to follow when working with problem solving.
Relate new information to student's existing system of knowledge.Color code information handouts.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record inclass.Provide a copy of the lecture notes before class starts.Allow someone else to take notes for the students.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended time.
Allow student to bring fact
sheet(s), or table(s) and/orchart(s)
to test.
Technological Accommodations
Allow use of manipulatives to develop understanding of concepts.
Dyslexia (Reading)
A secondary disability connected to a visual or auditory processing disorder
Difficulty/Inability to perform any task in which reading is an essential component (such as reading textbooks, articles, exams, notes etc.)
Difficulty/Inability to interpret charts, graphs, and other visual aids
Slow reading rate
Difficulty/Inability to read new words
Poor comprehension and retention of reading material / Instructional Accommodations
Do not ask student to read out loud. Use multiple media teaching approach. Allowstudent to use colored overlays.Allow student to use tapedtextbooks.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in class. Provide a copy of the lecture notes before class starts. Allow someone else to take notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time.
Provide a reader and/or scribe
for the test. Provide a tape-
recorded version of the test.
Allow the use of an alternate
demonstration of mastery.
Provide an alternate test site.
Technological Accommodations
Use taped textbooks. Allow student to use a computer with a speech synthesizer.
Language Comprehension Deficit
Difficulty with vocabulary
Difficulty/Inability to answer factual questions
Difficulty/Inability to concentrate during lectures
Poor or low reading comprehension
Difficulty with oral language
Low knowledge in content areas
Poor written expression
Difficulty/Inability to use prior knowledge to perform activities
Understands what he/she hears, not necessarily what was said / Instructional Accommodations
Pre-teach relevant vocabulary. Pre-teach background information.
Reduce distractions. Allow student to repeat back what was heard. Tell student in advance what question(s) you will be calling on them to answer in class.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in class. Provide a copy of the lecture notes before class starts.
Allow someone else to take
notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time.
Allow alternative demonstration
of mastery. Provide an alternate
test site. Allow student to clarify any questions on the test before starting the test. Allow student to use a dictionary and/or a word list.
Technological Accommodations
Allow access to a computer or word processor. Allow student to use an electronic spell checker.
Dysgraphia/Visuo-Graphic Disorder (Writing Deficit)
Extremely poor handwriting; handwriting frequently appears to be very immature
Difficulty with the physical act of writing
Will almost always print, since cursive writing requires a great deal more eye - hand coordination / Instructional Accommodations
Allow student to use a computer
or word processor for in-class
writing assignments. Have a
consistent format for papers
and assignments.
Allow student to have someone else edit his/her paper.
Allow student to present
paper(s) orally.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time.
Provide a scribe for test.
Allow student to tape-record
answers to the test. Allow
student to take the test orally.
Allow student to have someone
else edit his/her test. Allow
alternative demonstration of
mastery.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in
class. Provide a copy of the
lecture notes before class
starts.Allow someone else to
take notes for the student.
Technological Accommodations
Allow student to use a computer
or word processor. Allow
student to use a dictionary,
word list, or electronic spell
checker.
Reading Deficit
Slow or uneven reading rate
Difficulty/inability to read new words
Poor comprehension and retention of reading material / Instructional Accommodations
Do not ask student to read out
loud in class.Use multiple
media teaching approach.Allow
student to use colored overlays.
Explain graphs, tables and
charts. Allow student to use
taped textbooks.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in
class.Provide a copy of the
lecture notes before the class
starts.Allow someone else to
take notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time.
Provide a reader and/or scribe
for the test. Provide a tape
recorded version of the test.
Allow alternative demonstration
of mastery. Provide an alternate
test site.
Technological Accommodations
Tape textbooks. Allow student
to use a computer with a
speech synthesizer.
Spelling Dyspraxia
A secondary disability connected to a visual or auditory processing disorder
Difficulty/Inability to spell words correctly on a consistent basis / Instructional Accommodations
Do not count off for spelling
errors.Allow student to have
someone else edit their papers.
Allow student to use a computer
or word processor for in-class
writingassignments.Allow
student extra time to do in-class
writing assignments.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in
class.Provide a copy of the
lecture notes before class starts.Allow someone else to take notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time. Do
not count off for spelling
mistakes.If you must count off
for spelling - allow student to
have someone edit paper for
spelling errors before paper is
turned in. Allow student to take
test orally. Provide a scribe for
the test.
Technological Accommodations
Allow student to use a computer
or word processor. Allow
student to use adictionary,
word list, and/or electronic spell
checker.
Constructional Dyspraxia
Difficulty/Inability to sequence letters, numbers, words, sentences, paragraphs, steps, etc.
Difficulty/Inability to work math problems in correct order
Difficulty/Inability to tell a story or joke in the proper sequence
Difficulty/Inability to construct written papers in correct order; Poor speller / Instructional Accommodations
Provide student with list of
steps. Allow to use fact sheet(s)
and/or chart(s) with sequence
of steps indicated.Provide color-coded handouts.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in
class.Provide a copy of the lecture notes before class starts.Allow someone else to take notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time.
Allow student to use fact sheet(s) and/or chart(s) with sequence steps indicated.
Allow student to take test at an
alternate test site. Color-code
steps of problems.
Technological Accommodations
Allow student to use a computer
or a word processor.Allow
student to use a dictionary or
word list when writing.
Dyscalculia (Math)
Lack of any inherent ability to understand and perform mathematical functions. The lack of any inherent mathematical ability. / Because of the nature of Dyscalculia, note-taking, testing, and technological accommodations offer little to no assistance to the student.
Instructional Accommodations
Course substitution
Course waiver
Note-Taking Accommodations
Not applicable
Testing Accommodations
Not applicable
Technological Accommodations
Not applicable
Arithmetic Deficit
- Difficulty with mathematical reasoning
- Difficulty/Inability to understand numerical concepts
- Difficulty/Inability to read and comprehend math word problems
- Difficulty/Inability to understand math terminology (vocabulary)
- Difficulty/Inability to align numbers
- Number reversals
- Difficulty/Inability to process math facts rapidly
- Difficulty with concepts of time and money
- Allow student to use graph paper to align numbers.
sheet(s) and/or chart(s)
(i.e.,multiplication table).
Provide instruction of the
appropriate sequence or
hierachy of steps. Match
activities to learning styles.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in
class.Provide a copy of the
lecture notes before class
starts.Allow someone else to
take notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Enlarge print size & provide
large work areas adjacent to
each problem.Provide
extended test time.Allow
student to use fact sheet(s),
table(s), and/or chart(s) on the
test.Modify test format (oral
versus written).Color-code
problem. Highlight function
signs and starting & stopping
points.
Technological Accommodations
Allow student to use a calcu-
lator.Allow student to use
manipulatives.
Short-Term Memory Deficit
Difficulty/Inability to remember steps, in sequential order
Difficulty/inability to retain information and/or concepts long enough to understand
Difficulty/Inability to remember problems and retain numerical information (such as - multiplication tables, dates, etc.)
Difficulty/Inability to follow directions
Difficulty/Inability to take notes
Difficulty/Inability to answer oral questions
Short-Term Retrieval
Difficulty/Inability to repeat back auditory information immediately after hearing the information
Difficulty/Inability to re- create visual information immediately after presentation of the information
Difficulty/Inability to remember directions long enough to complete tasks
Difficulty/Inability to retrieve information read at the beginning of a reading assignment (even reading assignments as short as a math word problem)
Difficulty/Inability to retrieve information long enough to take notes on the subject being presented / Instructional Accommodations
Keep directions short and
simple.Encourage student to
repeat questions before
answering.Write directions,
procedures, and assignments
on the board.Reduce visual
and auditory distractions in the
classroom.Allow student to sit
at front of room.
Note-Taking Accommodations
Allow student to tape-record in
class.Provide a copy of the
lecture notes before class
starts.Allow someone else to
take notes for the student.
Testing Accommodations
Provide extended test time.
Provide testing in a quiet, non-
distracting environment.
Reduce all distractions.Keep
directions short and simple.
Allow alternative demonstration
of mastery.Allow student to use
fact sheet(s), table(s) and/or
chart(s).
Technological Accommodations
Allow student to use a computer
and/or word processor.
Long-Term Memory Deficit
Inconsistent when learning new information/facts (might remember one day and not the next)
Difficulty remembering rote facts
Long-Term Retrieval
Difficulty/Inability to process and recall information through associations (events, related ideas and concepts and names)