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Wilhelm Richter, Bernd Voigt
Universität GH Essen, Fachbereich 9 - Architektur, Bio- und Geowissenschaften,
Semester H3, Winter Semester 1972/73
UGE 1 Ethnological Study
MELANESIANS in NEW GUINEA – Arable Farmers
Examination of the typical housing of an indigenous civilization in the present age
Fig. 1: Houses with palm leaf roofs and walls in a Sepik village (4, fig. 16)
See: earth.google.comContents
Introductory remarks1 / BACKGROUND CONDITIONS
1.1 / Topographical conditions
1.2 / Geological conditions
1.3 / Climatic conditions
1.4 / Sociological conditions
1.5 / Economic conditions
1.6 / Historical conditions
1.7 / Political conditions
2. / DESCRIPTION OF THE HOUSE
2.1 / Construction brief
2.1.1 / Physical checks
2.1.2 / Functional framework
2.1.3 / Social milieu
2.2 / Form
2.3 / Techniques
2.4 / Photo of model
Bibliography
Introductory remarks
This ethnological study makes no claim to absolute completeness and accuracy.
As the authors have never been to New Guinea, their statements in this paper are solely based on reports and pictures from the writers listed in the bibliography. Parallels which may be discerned between the Melanesians and the Papua who also inhabit New Guinea are not unusual, as the two population groups often share the same customs and residential habits.
The drawings and the model were produced on the basis of pictures and reports from various members of New Guinea expeditions.
The model was constructed with natural materials, apart from the roof and wall coverings. As no palm fronds were available for the roof and walls, we decided to use tracing paper which, when painted, also conferred a certain textured character to the interior of the dwelling.
The authors
Map of New Guinea
See New Guinea / Sepik at earth.google.de
1. Background conditions
1.1. Topographical conditions
The Melanesians predominantly populate the coasts of eastern and northern New Guinea. In the Finschhafen District (to the north), the coast is for the most part flat, whereas at Astrolabe Bay, the Vitiaz Strait and Huon Gulf (to the east) the mountains (the Finisterre Range) approach the sea and form cliffs in some places (2, p. 1). In the east, the mountains are divided by the Sepik-Ramu Valley, which runs to the sea. The major river systems of the island, the Mamberamo, Sepik and Ramu, fill this valley (2, p. 2).
1.2 Geological conditions
Strong earthquake activity and a series of still active volcanoes off the coast bear witness to recent rock-forming forces (2, p. 3). Tertiary and quaternary strata are raised from the sea by elevation and subsidence and merge with the mountains. The mountains are for the most part composed of Cretaceous to Cainozoic calciferous sediments and recent volcanic rock, and in places also of granites and diorites. The Finisterre Range rises to over 4000 m and falls steeply to the coast (2, p. 4). In contrast, the area to the north of the central mountain range is a swampy, flat basin of varying width. It fundamentally consists of marine and fluvial sediments and volcanic deposits (Pleistocene and Holocene strata) (2, p. 6).
1.3 Climatic conditions
The climate of New Guinea is determined by the location of the island. It is fully within the area of influence of the torrid zone and has correspondingly high temperatures. The average annual temperature is 27.2°C, and even between 28° and 29°C in the east. The annual fluctuations are minor, at only around 2 – 3°C. The daily fluctuations, in contrast, can be significant, at between 15° and 20°C. The equatorial low pressure zone moves southward in the southern hemisphere’s summer, from November to March. It brings monsoon-like winds from the north-west. The tropical monsoon is linked with the inner-tropical convergence. Under the influence of the strongly heated Australian continent, the westerly wind flow is diverted to the south-east and, as the north-west monsoon, brings about considerable precipitation. Especially high levels of precipitation occur at the north face of the central mountain range.
In the southern winter, the greater influence of the south-east Passat prevails. Precipitation is then greater at the south side of the central mountains. The north-east coast receives the largest amount of rainfall, peaking in Maraga at 6600 mm. The annual average precipitation for the island is around 2500 mm.
Frequent thunderstorms, above all in spring and autumn, and the muggy greenhouse air caused by high temperatures, constitute an extremely unhealthy climate for Europeans (2, p. 6).
1.4 Sociological conditions
The social form of the Melanesians is still the extended family (1, p. 7). Patriarchy and matriarchy dovetail with each other. The matriarchal social order is widespread among the Melanesians. One form of this society is the division of the entire population into two matriarchically organized classes which lead their own social and religious lives even though they live mingled together. If totemistic, i.e. religious views engage, the members of the same clan are regarded as blood relatives and marriages between them are prohibited (1, p. 8).
Membership of such a clan is inherited through the mother’s line in the matriarchal cultures, and the children are therefore only related to the mother in terms of class (8a). The father’s inheritance does not pass to his own children, but to those of his sister. The customary economic and political form is the village (1, p. 9). Chieftainship has developed very often, but there are also Elders’ Councils and in several areas Men’s Secret Societies (1, p. 10).
1.5 Economic conditions
The majority of the indigenous population are engaged in migratory, semi-permanent cultivation (1, p. 10). For this purpose the rain forest is cleared and the soil broken up with spade-like digging sticks of around 1 m in length. The crops consist of tubers: sweet potatoes, taros, yams, etc. In addition, the pandanus palm is cultivated for its seed oil. Game is also hunted. After a few years, the low-nutrient soil is exhausted, as no fertilizers are applied. The natives then move on and establish new fields (2, p. 11).
Other tribes engage in hoe-farming. They fertilize the ground with dung and compost. They have drainage systems and terraced fields to combat soil erosion. Yams, taros, gherkins, pumpkins, spinach, maize, beans, bananas and tobacco are the main plants cultivated (3, p. 21). In places, this can be regarded as true horticulture. In the coastal areas, the focus shifts to coconut palms and sago palms. Every part of the coconut palm is used: copra and milk as food, the palm leaves as roof coverings and mats, the fibres of the nutshell for string and rope, the nutshells as vessels and the wood from the trunk as construction material (2, p. 12).
1.6 Historical conditions
The exploration of New Guinea took several centuries, and even today some parts of the island are still unexplored. New Guinea was discovered in 1526 by the Portuguese Jorge de Menezes, but only received its name 20 years later from the Spaniard Ortiz de Retes. He compared the country and its inhabitants with those of the West African coast. It was only identified as an island by James Cook on his first voyage of exploration from 1768 to 1771. The Spaniard Torres had admittedly discovered the passage named after him at an earlier date, but had kept it secret for political reasons. In the next decades there followed a slow mapping of the island (Dumont d’Urville, early 1900). Later, expeditions, especially German, Dutch and British ones, slowly penetrated into the interior. From 1854 to the First World War, the north-eastern part belonged to the German Empire (2, p. 14).
1.7 Political conditions
Politically, New Guinea is divided in two (2, S. 15). The western part, the former Dutch colony, is now known as Western New Guinea (formerly West Irian and Irian Jaya) and belongs to Indonesia. The eastern half of New Guinea is now an independent country (Papua New Guinea), formerly having been administered by Australia. The south-eastern part of the island was possessed by the Australian state of Queensland in 1883, becoming a British protectorate in 1884. In 1906 it was named “Territory of Papua” and was brought under Australian administration under a joint constitution with the north-eastern part of the island (“Territory of New Guinea”) in 1949. Papua New Guinea was granted independence in 1975. The capital is Port Moresby. The country is divided into 15 provinces, each of which has an administration headed by a governor who also has a seat in the national parliament (2, p. 16, 17 – revised and updated 2007).
2. Description of the house
2.1 Construction brief
2.1.1 Physical checks
The settlement scheme adopted by the Melanesians can be termed semi-permanent (18). The usual form of settlement is an irregularly structured conglomerate village (1, p. 19). In general, a distinction is required between family houses and the men’s or bachelors’ houses where the young adult unmarried men live.
The houses are constructed as buildings on stilts with gable or hipped roofs. The only connection between the interior and exterior is formed by a ladder at the gable end.
Fig. 2: Village of houses on stilts among luxuriant tropical vegetation (4, fig. 20)
The interior of the dwelling is divided by mat curtains or mat walls to suit the users’ needs.
Fig. 3 Interior of a Sepik house (4, fig. 22)
The space divided in this way receives light through the opening in the gable wall, which is also used as the entrance. Additional light falls through window-like openings in the walls. As the walls are frequently not totally sealed in any case, they also allow sufficient light to enter. The dwelling is ventilated by the wind, which easily permeates the floor and walls, as the wall and roof claddings only have the function of allowing water to run off.
2.1.2 Functional framework
From the
a) climatic,
b) sociological, and
c) economic conditions, the following construction brief was deduced:
Permanent residence, in spite of migratory farming. In detail, the following are required:
· Residential houses for families (extended or partial families)
· Men’s houses (nowadays becoming increasingly rare)
· Worship houses (haus tambaran)
· Pigsties.
Women and children live inside the family houses. They are responsible for the housework. The men’s and meeting house is the usual place for men to be, where they receive visitors and do their work (manufacturing weapons, etc.).
Fig. 4: This picture impressively shows the size and solidity of a well-preserved
men’s house on the Sepik (4, fig. 29)
The worship houses, known as “haus tambarans”, are used for religious and ceremonial acts (ancestor worship, spirits and totems). The men’s houses and worship houses are often combined (4, p. 22).
Fig. 5: “haus tambaran” in Kanduanum on the Sepik (4, fig. 27)
The living space of these hoe-farmers is always enclosed by the farmland, even when the settlement and cultivated area are jointly moved (3, p. 23). The residential form of a small group settlement is typical of the hoe-farming peoples (3, p. 24).
2.1.3 Social milieu
The villages consist of varying numbers of buildings (group settlements). The houses are erected by communal labour and furnished according to the needs of the inhabitants. The core of the community is the extended family (3, p. 25).
Social life is conducted within family relationships, as neighbouring tribes or settlements are often hostile to the family group (3, p. 27). Enemies of the village are combated jointly by all, with no major blood-letting, although at least one or more of the enemies are always killed. War is part of life for the indigenous population, just as is the spirit cult. Each clan or each extended family has its leader, who is also the warlord. Such clans are not limited in number, as often the inhabitants of the entire village are related to each other.
2.2 Form
The house of the extended family or group has an elongated, rectangular form (3, p. 28). The tall gables are characteristic. A further feature is the base frame constructed of tree trunks (piles), which ensures that the dwelling is airy and dry, even during flooding and in swampy areas.
2.3 Techniques
One special feature of the construction method is building without metal, without nails or screws. All the components are held together by lianas and fibres. The Indonesians’ techniques of tenon jointing and dowelling are extremely rare (1, p. 30).
Fig. 6: Base frame for pile structure
As a result of the method of building on stilts, the inner room and the house in general are very well ventilated (which is also a consequence of the lightweight construction of walls and floors). The living space is therefore neither damp nor hot. The stilts supporting the houses are 2 to 3 m high, depending on the location. They protect the building from flooding and vermin. The gaps in the floor make the interior easy to keep clean. The floors of the houses consist of uneven Limbung boards (4, p. 29) from the areca palm. Woven mats are sometimes placed upon these.
Fig. 7: Section of a house on stilts
The almost windowless interior is reached via climbing poles set at an angle, or more recently by ladders (4, p. 33).