AP Biology Unit 6 Review

Name ______Date ______

AP Biology – Unit 6 Review

Terms: use the index cards provided to review any of the terms below that you do not fully understand

Tissue

Organ

Organ system

Epithelial

Connective

Muscle

Nervous

Homeostasis

Negative feedback

Thermoregulation

Endothermic

Ectothermic

Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction

Countercurrent exchange

Hypothalamus

Endocrine system

Nervous system

Hormones

Pancreas

Pituitary gland

Oxytocin

ADH

Positive feedback

Epinephrine

Osmoregulation

Osmolarity

Urea

Uric acid

Aldosterone

Vitamins

Minerals

Peristalsis

Amylase

Pharynx

Esophagus

Pepsin

Small intestine

Duodenum

Bile

Liver

Gallbladder

Microvilli

Colon

Large intestine

Insulin

Glucagon

Open circulatory system

Closed circulatory system

Arteries

Arterioles

Capillaries

Venules

Veins

Atrium

Ventricle

AV valve

Semilunar valves

SA node

AV node

Systole

Diastole

Lymph nodes

Plasma

Hemoglobin

Leukocytes

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Alveoli

Diaphragm

Myoglobin

Innate immunity

Adaptive immunity

Interferons

Mast cells

T cells

B cells

Antigen

Epitope

Antibody

Effector cells

Memory cells

Primary immune response

Secondary immune response

Humoral immune response

Cell-mediated immune response

Helper T cell

MHC molecule

Cytotoxic T cells

Active immunity

Passive immunity

Allergens

Autoimmune diseases

Egg

Sperm

Gonads

Ovulation

Spermatogenesis

Oogenesis

FSH

Testosterone

Progesterone

Estrogen

Blastula

Gastrulation

Gastrula

Ectoderm

Endoderm

Mesoderm

Neuron

Dendrite

Axon

Synapse

Glial cell

Sensory neuron

Interneuron

Motor neuron

Peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system

Resting potential

Gated ion channels

Hyperpolarization

Depolarization

Action potential

Voltage gated

Threshold

Refractory period

Myelin sheath

Schwann cells

Nodes of Ranvier

EPSPs

IPSPs

Acetylcholine

GABA

Endorphins

Sympathetic division

Parasympathetic division

Mechanoreceptors

Electromagnetic receptors

Thermoreceptors

Pain receptors

Chemoreceptors

Myofibrils

Sarcomere

Tropomyosin

Myoglobin

Fast-twitch fibers

Slow-twitch fibers

Hydrostatic skeleton

Exoskeleton

Endoskeleton

Pheromones

Innate behavior

Special learning

Associative learning

Social learning

Altruism

Reading: Read through ALL of the information below and look up any information you do not fully understand.

Structure and Function of Plants and Animals (32%)

Animals

Digestion can either occur in a gastrovascular cavity, which has only one opening, or in an alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract), which has two openings. In humans, the breakdown of starch begins in the mouth. The stomach churns food mechanically and secretes gastric juice to begin the digestion of proteins. Digestion is completed in the duodenum, where bile will be used to break down fats. Peptidases continue to break down proteins, nucleases will break down nucleic acids, and lipases break down fats. Projections called villi absorb the released nutrients, and a lacteal will absorb fatty acids and glycerol. The large intestine removes undigested waste, excess water, and produces vitamins.

Gas exchange occurs passively by diffusion, and respiratory surfaces must be thin, moist, and have large surface area. Less complex respiratory systems are external, involving gas exchange at the skin. Arthropods and crustaceans have internal systems with spiracles. Aquatic animals have gills that take advantage of countercurrent exchange. In humans, air enters the naval cavity, passing through the larynx and down the trachea and bronchi to bronchioles. Diffusion of respiratory gases occurs in the alveoli. Oxygen is carried in the human blood by hemoglobin. A drop in pH lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen (Bohr shift).

In the circulatory system, arteries and arterioles carry blood away from the heart under high pressure, with walls made of thick, elastic, and smooth muscle. Veins and venules carry blood back to the heart under little pressure. They have thin walls with valves to prevent back flow. Capillaries allow for the diffusion of nutrients and wastes between cells and blood.

· Beginning with the pulmonary circuit, the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. As the blood flows through capillary beds, it will load oxygen and unload carbon dioxide. Oxygen-rich blood returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart. Next, the oxygen-rich blood will flow into the left ventricle, which will pump it out to body tissues in the systemic circuit.

· Blood leaves the left ventricle via the aorta, which conveys blood to arteries leading throughout the body. First branches supply blood to the heart, and then to the head and forelimbs. The aorta will then supply oxygen-rich blood to the abdominal organs and legs, picking up carbon dioxide. Capillaries will rejoin to form venules, which convey blood back to the veins. Oxygen-poor blood is emptied into the right atrium, where it will flow into the right ventricle.

Osmoregulation is the management of the body’s water and solute concentration. Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes, including carbon dioxide and water from cell respiration and nitrogenous wastes from protein metabolism. The kidneys are responsible for filter blood and producing urine. The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of all nerves outside the CNS. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the sensory system and motor system. The simplest nerve response is a reflex arc, such as the knee-jerk reflex, which only consists of a sensory neuron and motor neuron. An action potential can be generated in the axon of a neuron, which will result in depolarization of the membrane as potassium floods out of the cell. This causes an impulse to move along the axon.

The first line of nonspecific defense prevents pathogens from entering the body and includes skin, mucous membranes, cilia, and stomach acid. The second line of defense is also nonspecific, and includes the inflammatory response, phagocytes, interferons, and natural killer cells. The third line of defense is specific and consists of lymphocytes – B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B lymphocytes produce the humoral response by producing antibodies. T-lymphocytes fight pathogens in the cell-mediated response. They kill body cells that have been infected by recognizing protein fragments displayed by MHC molecules.

Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and ovum nuclei, begins with the acrosome reaction, when the head of the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes that penetrate the egg. This will cause the cortical reaction as the vitelline layer hardens. Embryonic development consists of cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis. Cleavage is the rapid mitotic division. Protostomes have spiral, determinant cleavage. Deuterostomes have radial and indeterminate cleavage. Gastrulation involves the formation of the blastopore. Organogenesis involves differentiation of cells.

Practice FRQ’s

1. The defenses of the human body to the entry and establishment of a pathogen (disease-causing organism) can be divided into nonspecific responses and specific responses.

(a) Explain how THREE types of nonspecific defenses can prevent the entry and/or establishment of a pathogen in a person’s body.

(b) Discuss how the immune system responds to an initial pathogenic exposure, and how this initial exposure can lead to a quicker response following a second exposure to the same pathogen.

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2. The evolution of circulatory systems allowed more complex and larger animals to arise.

a) Describe the respiratory and digestive systems’ specialized structures that facilitate the movement of oxygen and glucose into the circulatory system of mammals.

b) Explain how oxygen and glucose are transported within the circulatory system of mammals.

c) Explain the transfer of oxygen and glucose from the blood and into the active cells of mammals.

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Practice Multiple Choice

1. If red blood cells cultured in an isotonic medium are placed in distilled water, they will most likely

a. Remain unchanged

b. Shrivel

c. Swell and lyse

d. Divide

e. Become dormant

2. Which of the following structures contains highly oxygenated blood?

a. Vena cava

b. Right ventricle

c. Pulmonary artery

d. Pulmonary vein

e. Jugular vein

3. Which of the following led to the increased function of the invertebrate nervous system?

a. Development of an advanced cerebellum

b. Evolution of a ventral nerve cord, thus increasing the ability to move

c. Cephalization of the major sensory organs and the cerebrum

d. Specialization of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems within the nervous system

e. Occurrence of highly developed olfactory lobes in the invertebrate brain

4. Which of the following statements most correctly represents the organization of living systems from smallest to largest?

a. Molecules à organs à cells à organisms

b. Cells à tissues à molecules à ecosystems à communities

c. Organisms à molecules àcells à atoms

d. Atoms à molecules à cells à organisms à ecosystems

e. Organs à plants à animals à cells

5. The functional similarity of the mandibles (hinged jaws) of insects and those of mammals is an example of

a. Homology

b. Analogy

c. Divergent evolution

d. Adaptive radiation

e. Punctuated equilibrium

6. Which of the following organisms possesses both a system of blood vessels and a digestive tract in which food travels in only one direction?

a. Sponges

b. Flatworms

c. Annelids

d. Roundworms

e. Sea anemones

7. Which of the following features are common to all gas exchange systems in animals?

a. Active transport removes carbon dioxide from the respiratory structures

b. Materials flow in one direction only

c. An intake system is comprised of a series of tubes

d. Transfer is made by counter-current exchange

e. Gasses diffuse across a moist membrane

8. Which of the following occurs in the immediate fight or flight response to danger or fear?

a. An increase in glycogen synthesis

b. An increase in digestive activity

c. Release of ACTH from the pituitary

d. An increase in glucose catabolism

e. A decrease in noradrenaline

9. During the fall, a chipmunk experiences a sustained period of cold weather. The chipmunk’s thyroid gland responds by secreting a greater quantity of thyroxin. Which of the following represents the most accurate pathway from the central nervous system (CNS) to the target cells?

a. CNS à hypothalamus à anterior pituitary à thyroid à thyroxin à target cells

b. CNS à adrenal medulla à thyroid à thyroxin à target cells

c. CNS à motor neurons à muscle cells àthyroxin à target cells

d. CNS à posterior pituitary à oxytocin à thyroid à thyroxin à target cells

e. CNS à pancreas à insulin à sugar into cells à target cells

10. Which of the following goccurs in response to a rise in the blood sugar level?

a. The gall bladder releases glucagon

b. Glycogen is catabolized

c. Alpha cells in the pancreas secrete glucagon

d. Beta cells in the pancreas release amylase

e. Beta cells in the pancreas release insulin

11. Which of the following statements about the process of excretion in animals is correct?

a. Animals with closed circulatory systems usually have capillary beds associated with their excretory organs

b. Aquatic animals usually secrete their nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid

c. The contractile vacuole of a freshwater protozoan will become more active if the protozoan is placed in seawater

d. Nephridia are found only in vertebrate animals

e. In humans and other mammals, urea is produced in the kidneys

12. Which of the following causes the rapid change of membrane polarity during an action potential?

a. Diffusion of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine

b. Diffusion of positively charged ions across the cell membrane

c. Release of electrons from inside the cell

d. Release of protons from inside the cell

e. Active transport of cations by the sodium potassium pump

Questions 13 – 16 refer to the following

(A) Pancreas

(B) Kidney

(D) Gall bladder

(E) Stomach

13. Structure that stores lipid-emulsifying salts

14. Structure where pepsin hydrolyses proteins

15. Structure that produces most of the hydrolytic enzymes that are active in the small intestine

16. Structure where glycogen typically occurs in large quantities as a storage product

The diagram below illustrates Neuron A transmitting a signal to Neuron B.

17. Which of the following correctly describes the transport of neurotransmitter out of Neuron A?

a. The vesicle (2) fuses to the membrane (7) emptying its contents into the synaptic cleft (4) in a process called exocytosis

b. Using endocytosis, Neuron A passively transports the chemicals into the synaptic cleft (4)

c. The vesicle (2) facilitates diffusion of the neurotransmitter through the channel protein (3)

d. Simple diffusion occurs at the membrane (7) moving the neurotransmitter with its concentration gradient

18. Referring to the diagram above, for signal transduction to occur Neuron B must uptake ions from the synaptic cleft (4). Which of the following gcorrectly describes the transport of these ions into Neuron B?

a. Ions diffuse directly across the phospholipid bilayer

b. The ions must be actively transported through the integral proteins (5)

c. The neurotransmitter activates the integral proteins (5) opening channels to ion flow

d. The ions enter Neuron B through endocytosis

19. Which of the following physiological responses is an example of positive feedback?

a. The body’s production of red blood cells, which transport oxygen from the lungs to other organs, is stimulated by low concentrations of oxygen

b. A high concentration of glucose in the blood causes deeper, more rapid breathing, which expels carbon dioxide

c. Pressure of the baby’s head near the opening of the uterus stimulates uterine contractions which cause greater pressure against the uterine opening

d. Heighten body temperature induces sweating which disposes of metabolic heat and cools the body

20. Diabetes is a disease that affects a feedback regulation pathway of the cell, specifically the cell’s ability to lower the blood glucose level. Which of the following is a not an accurate statement regarding this disease?

a. Diabetics fail to produce or respond to insulin, a hormone that decreases blood glucose levels

b. Synthetic insulin can replace regular insulin in the feedback mechanism

c. Diabetics experience a positive rather than negative feedback regulation of glucose levels

d. In people without diabetes, increases in glucose intake initiate the production of insulin