Language Learning Theory

(taken from Ch. 1 of Teacher’s Handbook: Contextualized Language Instruction Third Edition (2005), Glisan and Shrum, Thomas Heinle,

Competence vs. performance / Chomsky /
  • Performance vs. “communicative competence”
  • MechanicalMeaningful Communicative
  • Has evolved to social aspects and taking action

Communicative competence / See above / See above
Krashen’s Input Hypothesis / Krashen /
  • L2 is learned like L1
  • Very systematic and predictable
  • Natural approach
  • 1-2 years of COMPREHENSIBLE LINGUISTIC INPUT (TPR)experimenting with output (baby talk)feed back (more input)
Input Hypothesis:
1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis: Learning and acquiring a language are different concepts
2)Monitor hypothesis: 180 hrs. from no inputoutput
3)Natural order hypothesis: systematic and predictable sequence of acquisition
4)Input hypothesis: i + 1 (current competence + a level up) assimilated into LAD
5)Affective filter hypothesis: anxiety must be low, high anxiety blocks compr. ling. Input
Input processing / Building on Krashen
Cadierno (1993)
Buck (2000)
Cheng (2002)
Farley (2003)
Wong & Vanpatten (2003)
VanPatten (2004) /
  • Meaning before form
  • Content words processed first (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
  • Structured input: “‘input that is manipulated in particular ways to push learners to become dependent on form and structure to get meaning’ ” (p.17).
“Beginning language learners need structured input activities that enable them to focus on meaning while they pay attention to form before they can use the language to produce output” (p.16).
Variability in performance / Critique of Krashen’s theory
Bialystok (1981,1982)
Tarone (1983)
McLaughlin, Rossman, & McLeod (1983)
Lightbown (1985)
Gass & Selinker (1994)
Ellis (1997) / “Learners use both AUTOMATIC and CONTROLLED processing in communicative situations” (p.17).
  • Controlled processingregular uselong term memoryautomatic processing
  • U-shaped behavior--Lightbown (1985)

Interlanguage Theory / Selinker (1974) / “language of the learner”
Individualistic linguistic system/5 cognitive processes:
1)interference from the native language
2)effect of instruction (instructional approach, rules provided by teacher, classroom activities)
3)overgeneralization of rules
4)strategies involved in second language learning (rote memorization, use of formal rules, guessing in context)
5)strategies in communication (circumlocution, gesture use, appeal for assistance)
“learners modify their interlanguage only when they integrate into their long-term memories the input that they hear or read” (p.19)
Long’s Interaction Hypothesis / Long (1983) / Many sources for comprehensible input
Comprehensible:
  • Simplify the input (familiar structures and vocabulary)
  • Linguistic and extralinguistic features (familiar structures, background knowledge, gestures)
  • Modify the interactional structure of the conversation

Negotiation of meaning / Pica, Holliday, Lewis, & Morganthaler (1989) / “ ‘exchanges between learners and their interlocuters as they attempt to resolve communication breakdown and to work toward mutual comprehension’” (p.19).
Swain’s Output Hypothesis / Swain (1985, 1995) / Learners need:
  • Opportunities to produce output to achieve higher levels of competence
  • Natural communicative situations
  • Meaningful, purposeful, motivational
  • Age-appropriate and interesting topics

Sociocultural theory / Vygotsky (1978)
Rogoff (1990)
Brooks (1990)
Wertsch (1991)
Wertsch & Bivens (1992)
Apel & Lantoff (1994)
Lantoff (1994)
Antón & DiCamilla (1998)
Wells (1998) / Challenges interactionist view
Linguistic, cognitive, social development are socioculturally constructed
Cultural, historical, institutional settings
“ ‘Occasions for instruction and learning are situated in the discursive interactions between experts and novices’” (p.21)
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development / Vygotsky / Performance with others > alone
Two levels of development:
  • Actual
  • Potential
Distance between these is the Zone of Proximal development
Scaffolding / Vygostky / Expanding actual performance base:
  • Enlist interest
  • Simplify
  • Motivate in pursuit of goal
  • Highlight relevant features
  • Reduce stress
  • Model idealized form
Teacher’s role:
1)assistance based on ability
2)recognize when to let go
Mediation / Vygotsky / Sociocultural perspective
Set goals
Tools:
  • Textbooks, visuals, classroom discourse patterns, interaction opportunities, direct instruction, teacher assistance, language (used to reflect on language), self talk (private speech), metal rehearsal, language play, portfolio

Interactional competence / Mehan (1979)
Hall (1995) / Managing discussions in relevant ways:
  • Opening utterances
  • Ellipsis ( not complete utterances)
  • Lexicon (content clues, etc.)
  • Expressive reactions, questions, explanations or extensions, transitions

Affect and motivation / Dulay & Burt (1977) / Affect: motivation, anxiety, personality, attitude
Motivation: most influential factor! (most complex in research)

i + 1 is NOT ZPD