EUROPEAN WITCHCRAFT

RISE IN PROSECUTIONS, c. 1560-1660

Witch hunt/craze? Esp. S.W. Germany (10-20% total)

Most involve isolated trials and executions e.g. England & France

Role of judges e.g. Matthew Hopkins (Essex, 1640s), Nicolas Rémy (Lorraine, C16th)

Spain, Italy & Russia low-key, despite inquisition

Salem (1690s) = exception in New England, only 19 died

Legal system: England no torture cf Scotland, but Paris parlement lenient too. Elsewhere in France significant, + possessed convents e.g. Loudun (1620s)

Only 40-50% execution rate, indicate leniency rather than panic, cf plaguespreaders in Geneva – 40% rate of conviction vs 20% for witchcraft; infanticide – Paris parlement – 70% vs 20%

EXPLANATIONS

1)Religious division

By-product of Reformation (Trevor-Roper), role of Devil/demonology (Clark).

2)Socio-economic disaster/crisis

General vs specific, weather magic (Behringer), against nature (Roper).

3)‘Charity’

Thomas, Macfarlane, Briggs. Refusal > tension & guilt > accusation of maleficia.

Misfortune associated with related individual, wiseperson common suspect.

Various remedies pursued, judges last resort.

4)Legal changes

Prosecution easier. Permission to torture for heinous crime > name accomplices.

5)Popular vs elite?

Role of diabolism e.g. Malleus Maleficarum c. 1486 > stereotypes e.g. sabbat. Some accepted guilt & readily confessed, = shared mental world.

Tracts: Jean Bodin, Demonomanie (1580); James VI & I, Daemonologie (1597)

Sceptics: Michel de Montaigne, Reginald Scot, Johann Weyer.

Much overlap – maleficia & diabolism common to both.

6)Prosecution of women

80% vs 20% male (cf Russia & Normandy), yet men more likely to be executed.

gender-related vs gender-specific.

Roper – fit with stereotype, Clark – polarity; role as nurturers, healers etc

Worsening economic & social situation for single women

DECLINE IN PROSECUTION

1)Increasing scepticism/more rational? = cultural/intellectual

Weyer & others in C16th + influence of early Enlightenment in C17th

2)Increasing scepticism/more doubt? = practical experience

Paris parlement – 1600 vs swimming test; 1624 automatic appeal; 1640 ceased

3)Causing increasing disorder = socio-economic

Counterproductive

More ordered society?

ANIMAL HISTORY

  • Animal history = our history, not just for animal rights groups and environmentalists.
  • Treatment cf traditionally oppressed/marginal groups, as too discussion of rights.
  • Dependent on hierarchy of status, as useful contributors to human society (good/bad).
  • Hunting vs poaching – hierarchical.
  • Value economic, emotional and even devotional.
  • Also whether posed threat, dangerous, destructive, demonic.
  • Symbolic use in rituals, as portents and analogies; monsters.
  • Role whether tamed or wild; mistreatment widespread; entertainment.
  • Anthropomorphism – treated like humans by judiciary and church.
  • Trials, excommunications and executions.
  • Theologically erroneous (no souls) and judicially suspect (re criminal responsibility).
  • Role in demonic activities: actual and symbolic; werewolves and other shapeshifters.
  • Witches as familiars and transform into (devil too).
  • Role/treatment much to tell us about human society/culture: preoccupations, fears.