Anatomy & Physiology 2

Anatomy & Physiology 2

SSFC PMD Program

Content Objectives

Section 1 –A– Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid – Base Balance

Describe body water distribution under the following headings:

Total body water content as a percentage of body weight

Names of major fluid compartments and their relative amounts as percentages of body weight

Major differences and/or similarities in composition between fluid compartments

Contrast the overall osmotic effects of electrolytes and nonelectrolytes
State the factors that control the movement of water between fluid compartments
Briefly explain the homeostatic mechanisms that regulate water intake and output
Describe the forces responsible for the movement of fluid at both the arterial and venous ends of capillaries
Explain how changes in capillary hemodynamics can result in edema
For each of the following electrolytes, describe the function(s) and homeostatic mechanism that maintain normal body concentrations
State the sources of hydrogen ions
State the function and chemical composition of buffers and identify 3 buffer systems in the body
Using the carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer, explain how buffers regulate hydrogen ion concentration
Define the terms acidosis and alkalosis and state their effects on the nervous system
Explain how the respiratory and urinary systems help maintain acid/base balance

B: The Genitourinary System :The Urinary System

List the functions of the urinary system.
On a diagram, identify and locate the organs of the urinary system:

-kidneys

-urinary bladder

-ureters

-urethra

Compare the course and length of the male urethra to the female urethra.
Identify and locate on a diagram the following macroscopic structures of the kidney:

- hilus- renal cortex- renal medulla - renal pelvis

- medullary (renal) pyramids - renal columns- major and minor calyces

Recognize that the nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney and identify the following structures of the nephron:

- glomerulus- renal tubule

- glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule- proximal and distal convoluted tubule

- loop of Henle- collecting ducts

- afferent and efferent arteriole- peritubular capillary system

Define each of the following pressures and explain how they contribute to effective filtration: - glomerular filtration pressure

- capsular hydrostatic pressure

- blood osmotic pressure

State the amount and composition of normal glomerular filtrate.
State the amount of glomerular filtrate that is reabsorbed, where the reabsorption takes place, the major substances reabsorbed and the processes responsible for reabsorption.
Be able to state where the majority of H20, various electrolytes, amino acids or proteins or other substrates are absorbed or secreted in the nephron
Under the following headings, describe how ADH (antidiuretic hormone) , aldosterone and the renin-angiotensin system acts with the kidney to regulate fluid and electrolyte amount or volume:

-stimulus for their release

-site and mode of action of each hormone

State the normal physical properties and chemical composition of urine.
Identify the normal urinary output per hour and per adult, child, and infant
Explain the physiological mechanism of micturition.

Section 2 -The Respiratory System

List the general functions of the respiratory system
Name, identify on a diagram or model, and state the general function of the following organs of the respiratory system:

Nose and nasal cavity

4 major paranasal sinuses

Pharynx-3 pair of tonsils –pharyngeal (adenoids), palatine, lingual

Larynx-location and structure

-thyroid cartilage, true vs. false vocal cords, glottis and epiglottis

Trachea-structure and location

Bronchi-bronchial tree, primary bronchi, hilus

Lungs-apex, base, lobes of each lung, pleura, secondary, tertiary, bronchi, bronchioles

Alveoli

Define intrapleural pressure and intrapulmonary pressure and describe how these pressures change during a normal breathing cycle
State the three factors involved in maintaining lung expansion and two forces which resist lung expansion
Define Quiet and Forced Inspiration and Expiration, and identify the muscles used
Define the following lung volumes and capacities:

Tidal volume

Inspiratory reserve volume

Expiratory reserve volume

Residual volume

Total lung capacity

Vital capacity (forced vital capacity or FVC)

Forced expiratory volume (FEV1)

Dead space volume

State the percentage composition of atmospheric air and calculate the PO² of atmospheric air
State the normal PO² and PCO² values for arterial and venous blood
Describe how the structure of the respiratory membrane is ideally suited for gas exchange
Explain how the blood gases are exchanged in the lungs and tissues
State the modes of transportation of blood gases, and identify the major mode of transportation for each
Describe how the brain stem and other brain regions regulate respiration
Describe the chemical regulation of respiration

Section 3 A. The Immune System

Name the structures and secretions that form the 1st line of defence and state how they protect the body against infection
Briefly describe the cellular and chemical processes that form the 2nd line of defence
Name the 3rd line of defence and state how it differs from the other mechanisms
Define the term antigen; give examples
Define the term antibody (immunoglobulin) and state the component of plasma proteins to which immunoglobulins belong
Briefly describe the development of the two types of immunocompetent lymphocytes
Describe the events of cell-mediated and antibody-mediated (humoral) immune responses
Name the types of pathogens destroyed by cell-mediated and humoral immunity, and state the mechanisms responsible for the destruction
Distinguish between primary and secondary immune responses and state the clinical significance of each

Section 4: The Nervous System

A.Examine the structure and function of the nervous system

Define: nuclei, ganglia, tracts, nerve
Describe the composition of gray matter and white matter
List some common neurotransmitters according to functions
Define reflex arc and list its elements
Define and explain the formation of each of the following:

-resting membrane potential

-action potential

-graded potential

Define and explain the significance of the following properties of action potentials: threshold potential; all-or-none phenomenon; refractory period
Identify two factors that influence the speed of impulse transmission in axons
Describe how synaptic events are integrated and modified
Describe several properties of synapses
Explain three mechanisms for terminating synaptic transmission

B.The Central Nervous System

Name, identify on a diagram, and describe the 3 layers of the meninges.
Name the spaces between the meninges and identify the space where cerebrospinal fluid is located.
Name, identify on a diagram or model, and state the general function of the parts of the central nervous system.
Discuss and identify on a diagram or model the following about the cerebral hemispheres :

a. anatomic structures (gyri, sulci, fissures, lobes, precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus)

b.functional regions of cortex (motor, sensory, and association)

Describe the structure of the spinal cord.
Differentiate between the location of white matter and gray matter.
Identify the following gross anatomical features of the spinal cord: location, length, diameter, cervical enlargement, lumbar enlargement, and cauda equina.
Identify the following structures of the internal anatomy (cross section): anterior horn- posterior horn - central canal- gray matter - dorsal root- ventral root- white matter(posterior, lateral, & anterior columns)

C.The Peripheral Nervous System

Define peripheral nervous system and list its components
Define: - sensory receptor, stimuli, sensation, perception, projection, sensory adaptation.
Discuss the general function of the sensory receptors.
Classify sensory receptors according to stimulus type detected, location, and structure.
With regards to function, and location, distinguish between:

1.mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and nociceptors (pain receptors),

2.exteroceptors, interoceptors (visceroceptors), and proprioceptors.

Briefly describe the general structure of a nerve.
Explain how nerves are classified:- mixed- afferent or sensory - efferent or motor
Define: cranial nerve

Identify the 12 cranial nerves by number and name and describe the major function of each.
Name the 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Describe how the spinal nerves branch after leaving the intervertebral foramen.
Name and locate the 4 major spinal nerve plexuses.
Name and locate on a diagram the following major nerves of each plexus, and briefly describe their distribution:

phrenic- axillary- radial- median - musculocutaneous - ulnar - femoral - obturator - sciatic - common peroneal - tibial

Distinguish between somatic and autonomic reflexes
State the functions of stretch, flexor, and cross extensor reflexes

The Autonomic Nervous System
Discuss the general functions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
List the 2 divisions of the ANS.
Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
Name and locate the control centers of the ANS
Name and locate areas that have input into the control centers of the ANS
Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS under the following heading:

(a)origin of preganglionic fibres

(b)location of ganglia

(c)neurotransmitters released by pre- and post-ganglionic fibers

(d)removal of transmitter substances

(e)functional differences (in general terms)

Define the following terms:

(a)adrenergic fiber

(b)adrenergic receptor

(c)cholinergic fiber

(d)cholinergic receptor

Distinguish between alpha and beta adrenergic receptors on the basis of location and effects
Identify the effects of both divisions of the ANS on the following structures:

(a)Pupils

(b)Heart

(c)Blood vessels: coronary, skeletal muscle, visceral, cutaneous

(d)Bronchioles

(e)Intestinal sphincters

(f)G.I. motility and secretions

(g)Urinary bladder

(h)Urethral sphincter

(i)Adrenal medulla

(j)Liver

(k)Sweat glands

(l)Salivary glands

Explain how the ANS mediates adaptive changes during the stress response.

The Endocrine System

Describe the general functions of the endocrine system.
Briefly discuss the relationship between the endocrine system and the nervous system in maintaining homeostasis.
Name the major chemical categories hormones belong to with examples of each.
Define hormone and target organ.
Differentiate between an endocrine and an exocrine gland.
On an appropriate diagram, identify the major endocrine glands and tissues.
Briefly describe the structure of the glands where indicated below and the primary hormones that they secrete:

*Pituitary- size- structural divisions - lobes - anterior- posterior

*Thyroid

*Parathyroid

*Adrenal- medulla- cortex

*Pancreas- structure

*Pineal

*Thymus

Describe the relationship between the hypothalamus, the anterior and posterior pituitary gland (portal blood system, releasing factors, and neurohormones)
Explain how the pituitary/hypothalamus controls thyroid gland secretion.
Differentiate between thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in terms of their composition and potency.
State the physiological effects of the thyroid hormones on:
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) and body temperature
Nervous and skeletal systems
Explain how the pituitary/hypothalamus controls glucocorticoid secretion.
Using cortisol as a prototype, explain the functions of glococorticoids by indicating their effects on: metabolism, bone & cartilage formation, the inflammatory response, and the immune response
State the relationship between the hypothalamus and the adrenal medulla
State the physiological actions of the catecholamines from the adrenal medulla
Name the hormone-producing regions of the pancreas as well as the names of the two populations of cells within these regions and the hormones they produce
State the normal range for blood glucose and explain briefly the regulatory mechanisms for insulin and glycogen secretion

Special Senses

EYE:

Identify and locate on a diagram the following external and internal structures of the eye:

A. External: - eyelids and eyelashes, conjunctiva,extrinsic eye muscles, lacrimal apparatus

B. Internal:- outer fibrous tunic: - cornea,sclera

- middle vascular tunic: - choroid, ciliary body, suspensory ligament, lens, iris

- inner nervous tunic:- retina, fovea centralis, optic disc

Cavities:- anterior

- posterior

Fluids:- aqueous humor, vitreous humor

Optic nerve

Differentiate between rods and cones with regards to location and function.
Briefly differentiate between the structure of the aqueous and vitreous humors
Identify the cranial nerves involved in vision and eye movement.

EAR:

Identify and locate on a diagram the following internal, middle, and external structures of the ear:

External Ear:- auricle (pinna), external auditory meatus

Middle Ear:- tympanic membrane, auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), oval window, auditory (eustachian) tube

Inner Ear:- cochlea, semicircular canals, round window

Identify the cranial nerve involved in hearing and equilibrium.

TASTE:

Examine the structure and function of the taste receptors.
Define: - taste buds- papillae- gustatory cells
Describe where taste buds are found.
Identify the four basic taste sensations.
Label on a diagram of the tongue the areas that are the predominant sites of sweet, sour, salt, and bitter receptors.
Identify the three cranial nerves that carry taste impulses to the gustatory cortex.

SMELL:

Examine the structure and function of the olfactory receptors.
Define:- olfactory receptors
Describe where olfactory receptors are found.
Identify the cranial nerve that carries impulses to the olfactory cortex.