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COVENANT,
PAROUSIA, & APOCALYPSE:
INTRODUCTion to Scripture
as Narrative, LituRGY, and Patristic witness.
Dr. Patrick S. Fodor
© 2017
INTRODUCTION
Covenant Beginnings
Introduction to Biblical Texts/ Orientation to the Methods of Biblical Study
In this course, we will be taking a very quick overview of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures. The primary text will be these Scriptures themselves in the Revised Standard Version- the only translation approved for use by Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches. By the conclusion of this course you should have a very general sense of what kinds of literature are included in the Bible, and the ways in which these biblical texts are understood by the communities in which they were formed.
It will be presumed throughout this course that the major structural framework of the Scriptures is one of covenants- about which we will say more shortly. We will begin by looking at the general outline of the Scriptures and a look at various methods which have been used to read, hear, and study these texts.
It should be pointed out at the outset that the original medium for the use of the Scriptures was oral/aural. It was not a literary text at all, at least not in the modern use of the term. It was intended to be spoken, sung, and heard. The texts were only written down so that they could repeatedly be made oral again. This is important because oral communication has a different dynamic than reading or studying a text. To hear a text spoken or sung is, in some sense, to have the message of that text imposed upon the hearer. To read a text is, on the other hand, to impose one’s self on that text, and to immediately become occupied with “using it” for one’s own purposes.
In the ancient world no one read documents silently. They were always read “out loud,” and were considered “living” words- words that performed some function by virtue of their being so read. They were in no sense “stagnant.” Proclamation of decrees, publication of contracts, and the speaking of various texts were all powerful, oral events which presumed a certain relationship with the speaker and the hearers.
Part of the dynamic of these oral events of Scripture reading was the expectation that these word would take certain identifiable forms which the hearers would be able to identify. One form in ancient texts, including the Scriptures, is, for example, the chiasm. In the chiasm the details are paired from the beginning and the end and move in toward the middle, where the main point is made. We usually put the high point- the climax- at the end. In the ancient Middle-East the high point was often in the middle instead. The invisible outline which would be heard by the trained ear looks like this:
A (verse 1ab) Jesus calls the disciples to Himself.
B (verses 1c-3) The crowd is hungry.
C (4-5) Seven loaves.
D (6a) Jesus commands the crowd to recline on the ground.
C1 (6b-7) Seven loaves and a few fish.
B1 (8-9) The crowd eats and is satisfied.
A1 (10a) Jesus sends the crowds away.
In this outline of Mark 8: 1-10 the main point of the feeding is made in verse 6a: Jesus has the crowd recline. This posture recalls the way God commanded the Israelites to eat in the wilderness after leading them out of Egyptian slavery. It means that Jesus is identifying Himself with this same God, come to set the people free from bondage. [1]
In addition to the literary forms of the texts, there are also historical details which serve to contextualize the texts’ meaning. These details include what has happened before, the laws God has given and how they have been understood, the social institutions of the day, and various ways of looking at reality, including matters such as the system of honor and shame, the role between rulers and people, and many others.
Finally, it is vital to understand that all translations of the ancient texts are just that- translations. It is extremely difficult, and in many cases impossible, to communicate the full meaning and flavor of words in one language in another language. The knowledge of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek are important for the detailed study of these texts. Lexicons, which show the meaning and context of the words of the original languages are important tools. While this makes deeper study inaccessible for many people, it is still possible to have some access to some of the insights of the original languages through tools which have been designed for this purpose. Many kinds of study aids have been developed for those who cannot read the ancient languages.
In order to rightly understand texts it is important to establish what those texts are. In no case do we have the autographs- the first, original documents. We have copies. This does not mean that the texts are untrustworthy; but it does mean that we have to use some discernment in determining which texts are trustworthy and which have, for various reasons, been abridged, modified or embellished. This study is called “lower Criticism.”
The original texts of the Old Testament were written primarily in Hebrew. Some later texts of the Old Testament were originally written down in Aramaic, or in Greek. The texts not already in Greek were translated in Jewish scholars in Greek in the centuries before Christ. This edition of the Scriptures all in Greek is called the Septuagint or LXX, for the seventy scholars who reportedly worked on it. The modern Jewish edition of the Hebrew texts was edited at a Jewish council at a town called Jamnia c. 100 AD. The list of accepted books, called the canon- meaning “rule,” or “standard”- was at this point set to exclude the books originally written in Greek; these books were called Apocrypha, which means “hidden” writings.. The Christian Church, which used the LXX as its standard text, continued to use these books, which are called the “deuterocanonical” (or “secondary canon”) books. Most- but not all- of the quotations of the Old Testament in the New Testament are from the LXX. At the time of the Protestant Reformation the canon Jamnia was used. More recent discoveries of ancient Hebrew texts, such as those found at Qumran, tend to support the readings of the LXX over the edition of the Hebrew texts edited at Jamnia.[2] Apocrypha is the more derogatory term, and reflects the different canon accepted by Jews and Protestants over against that accepted by Roman Catholics and the Orthodox.
The New Testament texts have a similar story. The majority of texts, from a wide geographical area in the ancient world, have a high degree of uniformity. These make up what is often called the Received Text, or the Ecclesiastical Text, and are the edition which has been formally accepted by the Greek Churches (and others) to this day. More recent discoveries of older manuscripts, or manuscript fragments, have convinced many scholars that a different text should be constructed. This eclectic text is made up, however, of a smaller number of manuscripts which often contradict one another. A growing number of scholars are critical of the subjective biases which creep into this eclectic text.
In addition to “Lower Criticism,” the study of manuscripts, there is also the study called “Higher Criticism.” This methodology attempts to determine the meaning of texts by “getting behind” those texts to the authors and the settings which may have influenced them. The presuppositions of those using these methods are generally not as respectful of the texts as sources of divine revelation; but many insights of higher criticism have been very helpful in seeing the importance of various literary forms and the conscious methodology of various biblical authors.
Having established texts, it is then necessary to know the ways in which the audience (literally, “hearers”) interact with proclaimed texts. Ways of hearing and understanding texts always (in the ancient world) have to do with hearing them within the community, which gives their interpretation or at least perimeters within which right interpretation takes place. This was true in ancient Israel, in the Christian church of the first four centuries, and in the Jewish and Christian communities until this day. Individualism is not an historical phenomenon for the determination of meaning.
The original use of the Old Testament texts was liturgical. The scrolls, made of animal hide, were wrapped around two rods. The Scriptures were classified as the Torah (Pentateuch), Prophets and Writings. The term Pentateuch means, in fact, five scrolls, since this is the amount of space these five books took up. The word Torah, which is often translated “law,” means “instruction” or “revelation.” The first five books are also known as the “Five Books of Moses,” after the primary human author. The acronym TaNaKh points to all three categories of Scriptures used in liturgical Services of the Temple. The Hebrew classification “Prophets” includes two subcategories: the former prophets (Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings) and the latter prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the “Book of the Twelve,” also called the “minor prophets”). The “Writings” include everything else, including what might be called historical books- Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Esther, and Ruth- wisdom books like Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, and the book of Daniel. Three readings were appointed for each Temple liturgy, one from each category with Psalms spliced in between. These appointed lessons expressed the theme of the day or festival. Later on, the synagogues tended to imitate these readings, and even later Christians modified the practice, using the categories of Old Testament reading, Epistle reading, and a reading from one of the Gospels (or often the entire Gospel). This liturgical procedure also shows the parallels between the arrangements of the Old and New Testaments- both begin with five historical; books which are central to the Faith, and are then followed by other books which comment on them and show their application. The only difference between Old Testament Jewish practice and Christian practice is in the order of the readings: the Jews went from the greater to the lesser, while the Christians reversed the order.
Finally, we should make a few notes about study tools, especially concordances, dictionaries, commentaries, and atlases. A good Bible concordance will be exhaustive. It will include a list of every time a particular word is used in a particular translation of the Bible. (It must, of course, match the translation you are using.) The verses where each word can be found will be listed in canonical order, just as they are found in the Bible. Some bibles include limited concordances in the back, but these need to be supplemented by an exhaustive concordance for significant study. Many bibles will also include cross references, either in the side margin, center margin, or at the bottom of the page. These will show other verses where the same word or ideas occur and are also very helpful.
Additional background will require a dictionary. Some one volume dictionaries are quite good, though a few multi- volume sets will be better. The dictionary will give you historical and archeological information in summary form, as well as pointing to sources for further study.
Bible commentaries, at least good ones, will go quite a bit further than dictionaries. Once again, a single volume commentary can easily be found for the whole Bible, but these will be limited in the amount of information they can give. Many commentaries take a single book of the Bible, or a group of related books, and give a more thorough treatment. Be careful, however, to note the purpose behind any given commentary. Some are “devotional,” and not intended to give significant scholarly information. Some are, indeed, just fluff, made up of personal reflections and thoughts of the author. Good introductory series are available from Tyndale, and a few other sources. Check the course resources section for more information. Good commentaries will give information on the structure of the biblical book, background historical and social information, explanation of phrases and words in their original language, connections with other parts of the biblical canon, the history of how this book has been interpreted in history, and places to go for further study.
Finally, while most bibles have maps in the back, it is a good idea to procure an atlas. A good atlas will have notation to explain the connection between events and the maps and charts, and an index to help you find places. Some portions of Scripture are very hard to understand without being able to understand where the events take place.
PART I: The old testament
The chart on the following page gives a very broad historical overview of the Old Testament period, taking into account some recent research in Egyptology.
Old Testament Historical OverviewPersons / Periods
and Events / Contemporary Cultures / Old Testament Books Written
Adam / BEFORE THE PATRIARCHS
Creation
Flood / Prehistorical Era / [Traditional Chronology]
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph / PATRIARCHS
Abraham enters the land
c. 2090 B.C.
Joseph Prime Minister
c. 1885-1805 / Patriarchal Narratives reflect culture of Mesopotamia and Egypt / Job
EGYPTIAN SOJOURN
c. 1875-1445 / Egypt enslaves the Israelites (c. 1540-c.1450, Neferhotep I, Sobekhotep IV, Dudimose)
Moses / WILDERNESS WANDERING
c. 1445-1405 / Hyksos (no 14th Dynasty in Egypt- c. 1450- c. 1290) / Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Joshua, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson / CONQUEST AND JUDGES
c. 1405-1050 / Palestine occupied, various nations oppress Israel / Joshua, Judges
Samuel, Saul, David, Solomon / UNITED MONARCHY
Established 1050 / Surrounding nations defeated by Israel / Ruth, Samuel, Psalms, Song of Solomon, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes
DIVIDED MONARCHY
931-722
SOUTH:
Rehoboam / NORTH:
Jeroboam I / Aramean Kingdom
931-732
Jehoshaphat
Uzziah / Ahab
Jeroboam II / Shoshenk I (22nd Dynasty, Egypt=Sishak, 925, 1 K. 14:25-26) / Obadiah, Joel, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah
Hezekiah / Fall of Aram c. 732
Assyrian domination of Palestine 745-650 / Nahum, Zephaniah
Fall of Samaria c. 722
Josiah / JUDAH ALONE 722-586 / Jeremiah, Lamentations, Habakkuk, Kings, Daniel, Ezekiel
Daniel’s Captivity
Ezekiel’s Captivity
Jeremiah / Fall of Jerusalem c. 586 / Babylonian Supremacy
625-539 / Haggai, Zechariah
Zerubbabel
Haggai
Zechariah / RESTORATION
538-c. 400
Second Temple / Medo-Persian Rule
539-331
Ezra’s Return c. 458 / Chronicles, Ezra, Esther
Malachi / Nehemiah’s Return c. 444 / Nehemiah, Malachi
Covenant