THEORY
Books
Lilly, J. Robert; Cullen, Francis T. & Ball, Richard A. (2011). Criminological Theory, 5th
Edition.
Jacoby, J.; Severance, T.A.; Bruce, A.S. (2012). Classics of Criminology, 4th Edition. Prospect
Heights, IL: Waveland Press
Cullen, Francis & Agnew, Robert (2011) Criminological Theory: Past to Present. Essential
Reading. Oxford University Press.
Articles
Gottfredson, M. (1981). On the etiology of criminal victimization. Journal of Criminal Law and
Criminology, 72, 714-726.
Messner, S.F. & Tardiff, K. (1985). The social ecology of urban homicide. An application of
“routineactivites” approach. Criminology, 23, 241-267.
Sampson, R.J., Raudenbush, S.W. & Earls, F. (1997). A neighborhood and violent crime: A
multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277 (August 15), 916-924.
Pratt, T.C., & Cullen, F.T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general
theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931-964.
Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of
strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319-361.
Merton, R.K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3, 672-682.
Matsueda, R.L. (1988). The current state of differential association theory. Crime and
Delinquency, 34, 277-306.
Bohm, R.M. (1982). Radical criminology: An explication: Criminology, 19(4), 565-589).
Schwendinger, H. & Schwendiger, J. (1977). Social class and definitions of crime. Crime and
Social Justice, 7, 4-13.
Daly, K., & Chesney-Lind, M. (1988). Feminism and criminology. Justice Quarterly, 5(4), 497-
538.
Blumstein, A., Cohen, J. & Farrington, D.P. (1988). Criminal career research: Its value for
criminology. Criminology, 26, 1-35.
METHODS
Role of Research and Theory
Merton, Robert K. 1948. “The Bearing of Empirical Research upon the Development of Social Theory.” American Sociological Association 13:505-515.
Uggen, Christopher and Michelle Inderbitzin. 2010. “Public Criminologies.” Criminology Public Policy 9:725-749.
Blumer, Herbert. 1954. “What is Wrong with Social Theory?” American SociologicalReview 19:3-10.
Loader, Ian and Richard Sparks. 2010. “What is to be done with Public Criminology?” Criminology & Public Policy 9:771-781.
MacCoun, Robert J. 1998. “Biases in the Interpretation and Use of Research Results.”Annual Review of Psychology 49:259-287.
Sources of Data
Mosher, C. J., Miethe, T. D., & Hart, T. C. (2010).The mismeasure of crime. Sage.
Elliott and Ageton. 1980. “Reconciling Race and Class Differences in Self-Reported and Official Estimates of Delinquency.” American Sociological Review 45:95-110.
Hindelang, Hirschi, and Weis. 1979. “Correlates of Delinquency: The Illusion ofDiscrepancy between Self-Report and Official Measures.” American Sociological Review 44:995-1014.
Maxfield, Weiler, and Widom. 2000. “Comparing Self-Reports and Official Records ofArrests.” Journal of QuantitativeCriminology 16:87-110.
Measurement
Abbott, Andrew. 1997. “Seven Types of Ambiguity.” Theory and Society 26:357-391.
Blalock Jr., H. M. 1979. “Measurement and Conceptualization Problems: The MajorObstacles to Integrating Theory and Research.” American Sociological Review 44:881-894.
Bushway, Shawn, Brian D. Johnson, and Lee Ann Slocum. 2007. “Is the Magic Still There?
The Use of the Heckman Two-Step Correction for Selection Bias in Criminology.”
Journal of Quantitative Criminology 23:151-178.
Leahey, Erin. 2005. “Alphas and Asterisks: The Development of Statistical Significance Testing Standards in Sociology.” Social Forces 84:1-24.
Paternoster, Raymond, Shawn Bushway, Robert Brame, and Robert Apel. 2003. “TheEffect
ofTeenage Employment on Delinquency and Problem Behaviors.” Social Forces 82:297-335.
Longshore, Douglas, Judith A. Stein, and Susan Turner. 1998. “Reliability and Validityof a
Self-Control Measure: Rejoinder.” Criminology 36:175-182.
Longshore, Douglas, Susan Turner, and Judith A. Stein. 1996. “Self-Control in aCriminal Sample: An Examination of Construct Validity.” Criminology 34:
209-228.
Piquero, Alex R. and Andre B. Rosay. 1998. “The Reliability and Validity of Grasmick et al.’s Self-Control Scale: A Comment on Longshore et al.” Criminology 36:
157-173.
Sampling/Data Issues
Robinson, W. (1950). Ecological correlations and the behaviors of individuals. American
Sociological Review, 15, 351-357.
Berk, R.A. & Ray, S.C. (1982). Selection biases in sociological data. Social Science Research,
11(4), 352-398.
Maltz, M. (1994). Deviating from the mean: The declining significance of significance. Journal
of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31(4), 434-463.
Bushway, S., Sweeten, G., & Wilson, D. (2006). Size matters: Standard errors in the application
of null hypothesis significance testing in criminology and criminal justice: Journal of
Experimental Criminology, 2(1), 1-22.
Abraham, Katharine G., Sara Helms, and Stanley Presser. 2009. “How Social Processes Distort Measurement: The Impact of Survey Nonresponse on Estimates of Volunteer Work in theUnited States.” American Journal of Sociology 114:
1129-65.
Berk, Richard A. 1983. “An Introduction to Sample Selection Bias in Sociological Data.” American Sociological Review 48:386-398.
Heimer, Karen, Janet L. Lauritsen, and James P. Lynch. 2009. “The National CrimeVictimization Survey and the Gender Gap in Offending: Redux.” Criminology 47:427-438.
Lauritsen, Janet L., Karen Heimer, and James P. Lynch. 2009. “Trends in the Gender Gap in Violent Offending: New Evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey.”Criminology 47:361-399.
Schwartz, Jennifer, Darrell Steffensmeier, Hua Zhong, and Jeff Ackerman. 2009. “Trends in the Gender Gap in Violence: Reevaluating NCVS and Other Evidence.” Criminology47:401-425.
Van Poppel, Frans and Lincoln H. Day. 1996. “A Test of Durkheim’s Theory ofSuicide—
Without Committing the ‘Ecological Fallacy.’” American Sociological Review 61:500-
507.
Research Design and Methods
Goddfredson, M. & Hirschi, T. (1987). The methodological adequacy of longitudinal research on
crime. Criminology, 25(3), 581-614.
Loftin, C. & McDowall, D. (1988). The analysis of case-control studies in criminology. Journal
of Quantitative Criminology, 4(1), 85-98.
Menard, S. & Elliot, D.S. (1990). Longitudinal and cross-sectional data collection and analysis in
the study of crime and delinquency. Justice Quarterly, 7(1), 11-55.
Britt, C., Kleck, G., & Bordua, D. (1996). A reassessment of the D.C. gun law: Some cautionary
notes on the use of interrupted time series designs for policy impact assessment. Law & Society Review, 30(2), 361-380.
Junger-Tas, J. & Marshall, I.H. (1999). The self-report methodology in crime research. Crime
and Justice, 25, 291-367.
Fowler, F.J. (2001). Survey research methods (3rded.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Yin, R. (2002). Case study research: Design and Methods (3rded.). Applied Social Research
Methods Series, Vol 5. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Tashakkari, A. & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bachman, R. & Paternoster R. (2009). Statistical Methods for Criminology and Criminal
Justice. 3rd edition. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Nardi, P.M. (2006). Interpreting Data: A Guide to Understanding Research. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Williams, F. P. (2009). Statistical Concepts for Criminal Justice and Criminology. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Experimentation and Experimental Design
Farrington, David P. 2003. “A Short History of Randomized Experiments inCriminology:
AMeager Feast.” Evaluation Review 27:218-227.
Nagin, Daniel S. and Greg Pogarsky. 2003. “An Experimental Investigation ofDeterrence:
Cheating, Self-Serving Bias, and Impulsivity.” Criminology 41:167-193.
Pager, Devah. 2003. “The Mark of a Criminal Record.” American Journal of Sociology108:937-75.
Pager, Devah, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski. 2009. “Discrimination in a LowWage
Labor Market: A Field Experiment.” American Sociological Review74:777-799.
Sampson, Robert J. 2010. “Gold Standard Myths: Observations on the Experimental Turn in Quantitative Criminology.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 26:489-500.
Sherman, Lawrence W. 2009. “Evidence and Liberty: The Promise of ExperimentalCriminology.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 9:5-28.
Steffensmeier, Darrell J. and Robert M. Terry. 1973. “Deviance and Respectability: An Observational Study of Reactions to Shoplifting.” Social Forces 51:417-426.
Survey Research and Instrumentation
Couper, Mick P. 2000. “Web Surveys: A Review of Issues and Approaches.” PublicOpinionQuarterly 64:464-494.
Dillman, Don A. 1991. “The Design and Administration of Mail Surveys.” Annual Review of
Sociology 17:225-249.
Gottfredson, Michael and Travis Hirschi. 1987. “The Methodological Adequacy ofLongitudinalResearch on Crime.” Criminology 25:581-614.
Groves, Robert M. 1990. “Theories and Methods of Telephone Surveys.” Annual Review of Sociology 16:221-240.
Hart, Timothy C., Callie Marie Rennison, and Chris Gibson. 2005. “RevisitingRespondent
‘Fatigue Bias’ in the National Crime Victimization Survey.” Journalof QuantitativeCriminology 21:345-363.
Jang, Sung Joon. 1999. “Different Definitions, Different Modeling Decisions, andDifferent Interpretations: A Rejoinder to Lauritsen.” Criminology 37:695-702.
Lauritsen, Janet L. 1998. “The Age-Crime Debate: Assessing the Limits of Longitudinal Self Report Data.” Social Forces 77:127-154.
Lauritsen, Janet L. 1999. “Limitations in the Use of Longitudinal Self-Report Data: AComment.” Criminology 37:687-694.
Schaeffer, Nora Cate and Stanley Presser. 2003. “The Science of Asking Questions.”Annual Review of Sociology 29:65-88.
Thornberry, T. P., and Miles B. Bjerregaardes. 1993. “The Consequences of Respondent Attrition in Panel Studies: A Simulation based on the Rochester Youth Development
Study.”Journal of Quantitative Criminology9, 32p.
Field Research and Available Data
Adler, Patricia A. and Peter Adler. 2003. “The Promise and Pitfalls of Going Into theField.” Contexts 2:41-47.
Anderson, Elijah. 1998. “The Social Ecology of Youth Violence.” Crime and Justice24:65-104.
Gerstenfeld, Phyllis b., Diana R. Grant, and Chau-Pu Chiang. 2003. “Hate Online: AContentAnalysis of Extremist Internet Sites.” Analyses of Social Issues and Public
Policy 3:29-44.
Tewksbury, Richard, Dean A. Dabney, and HeithCopes. 2010. “The Prominence ofQualitativeResearch in Criminology and Criminal Justice Scholarship.” Journal of Criminal JusticeEducation 21:391-411.
Multiple Methods and Program Evaluation
MacKenzie, Doris Layton, David B. Wilson, and Suzane b.Kider. 2001. “Effects of Boot Camps on Offending.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science578:126-143.
Petrosino, Anthony, Carolyn Turpin-Petrosino, and James O. Finckenauer. 2000. “Well MeaningPrograms Can Have Harmful Effects! Lessons from Experiments of Programs Such as Scared Straight.” Crime & Delinquency 46:354-379.
Pratt, Travis C. and Francis T. Cullen. 2000. “The Empirical Status of Gottfredson andHirschi’sGeneral Theory of Crime: A Meta-Analysis.” Criminology 38:931-964.
GENERAL
ETHICS
Braswell, M.C., McCarthy, B.R., & McCarthy, B.J. (2007). Justice, Crime and Ethics. 7th edition.
Burlington, MA: Elsevier, Inc.
Pollock, J.M. (2014). Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice, 8th edition. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Babbie, E. (2004). Laud Humphreys and research ethics. The International Journal of
Sociology and Social Policy, 24: 12-19.
DeMatteo, D., Filone, S. & LaDike, C. (2011). Methodological, Ethical and Legal
Considerations in Drug Court Research. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 29: 806-
820.
Duval, G. & Salmon, C. (2004). Research Note: Ethics of Drug Treatment Research with
Court-Supervised Subjects. Journal of Drug Uses, 34: 991-1005.
Fekkenes, G. T. (1984). Attitudes of police officers toward their professional ethics. Journal
of Criminal Justice, 12: 211-230.
Glaser, B. (2009). Treaters or punishers? The ethical role of mental health clinicians in sex
offender programs. Aggression and Behavior, 14: 248-255.
Hanson, R.K., Letourneau, E.J., Olver, M.E., Wilson, R.J. & Miner, M.H. (2012). Incentives for
offender research participation are both ethical and practical. Criminal Justice and
Behavior, 39: 1391-1404.
Joh, E.E. (2009). Breaking the law to enforce it: Undercover police participation in crime.
Stanford Law Review, 62: 155-198.
Miller, J.L. & Sloan, J.J. (1994). A study of criminal justice discretion. Journal of Criminal
Justice, 22(2): 107-123.
Seddon, T. (2007). Coerced drug treatment in the criminal justice system. Criminology and
& Criminal Justice, 7: 269-286.
Ward, T. & Birgden, A. (2009). Accountability and dignity: Ethical issues in forensic and
correctional practice. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14: 227-231.
Ward, T. & Salmon, K. (2009). The ethics of punishment: Correctional practice implications.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14: 239-347.
Warwick, D.P. (1973). Tearoom trade: Means and ends in social research. The Hastings
Center Studies, 1: 27-38.
Westmarland, L. (2005). Police ethics and integrity: breaking the blue code of silence.
Policing & Society, 15: 145-165.
Westmarland, L. (2013). Snitches get stiches: US homicide detectives’ ethics and morals in
action. Policing & Society, 23: 311-327.
Age
Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., & Farrington, D. P. 1988. “Criminal Career Research: Its Value for Criminology.”Criminology26(1):1-35.
Bosick, Stacey J. 2009. "Operationalizing Crime Over the Life Course." Crime &Delinquency
55(3):472-496.
Brame, Robert, and Alex R. Piquero. 2003. "Selective Attrition and the Age-CrimeRelationship." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 19(2):107.
Gottfredson, & Hirschi. 1986. “The True Value of Lambda Would Appear to be Zero: An Essay on Career Criminals, Criminal Careers, Selective Incapacitation, Cohort Studies, and Related Topics.” Criminology 24:213-34.
Hirschi, Travis and Michael R. Gottfredson. 1983. “Age and the Explanation of Crime.” American Journal of Sociology 89:552–84.
Hirschi, Travis and Michael R. Gottfredson. 1995. “Control Theory and the Life Course Perspective.” Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention 4:131-42.
Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. 2005. “What has been Learned from Group-BasedTrajectory Modeling? Examples from Physical Aggression and Other Problem Behaviors.”Annals of theAmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science 602(November):82-117.
Osgood, D. Wayne. 2005. “Making Sense of Crime and the Life Course.” Annals of theAmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science602:196–211.
Petras, Hanno, PaulNieuwbeerta, and Alex R. Piquero. 2010. "Participation andFrequency during Criminal Careers across the Life Span." Criminology 48(2):607-
637.
Rowe, D., Osgood, W., & Nicewander. 1990. “A Latent Trait Approach to UnifyingCriminal Careers.” Criminology 28:237-70.
Steffensmeier, D. J., Allan, E. A., Harer, M. D., & Streifel, C. 1989. “Age and theDistributionof Crime.”American Journal of Sociology94(4):803-831.
Stolzenberg, L., & D'Alessio, S. 2008. “Co-Offending and the Age-Crime Curve.”Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency45(1):65-86.
Tittle, Charles R., and Harold G. Grasmick. 1998. “Criminal Behavior and Age: A TestofThree Provocative Hypotheses.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology88:309–42.
Warr, Mark. 1993. “Age, Peers, and Delinquency.” Criminology 31:17–40.
Gender
Heimer, Karen, and Stacy De Coster. 1999. "The Gendering of Violent Delinquency."Criminology 37(2):277-317.
Heimer, Karen, Janet L. Lauritsen, and James P. Lynch. 2009. "The National CrimeVictimization Survey and the Gender Gap in Offending: Redux." Criminology 47(2):427-438.
Kruttschnitt, C. 1996. “Contributions of Quantitative Methods to the Study of Gender and Crime, or Bootstrapping our way into the Theoretical Thicket.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 12, 27p.
Lauritsen, Janet L., and Karen Heimer. 2008. "The Gender Gap in Violent Victimization, 1973–2004." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 24(2):125-147.
Lauritsen, Janet L., KarenHeimer, and James P. Lynch. 2009. "Trends in the Gender Gap in Violent Offending: New Evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey." Criminology 47(2):361-399.
Mack, Kristin Y., and Michael J. Leiber. 2005. "Race, Gender, Single-MotherHouseholds,
and Delinquency: A Further Test of Power-Control Theory." Youth& Society 37(2):115-144.
Merolla, David. 2008. "The War on Drugs and the Gender Gap in Arrests: A CriticalPerspective." Critical Sociology (Sage Publications, Ltd.) 34(2):255-270.
O'Brien, Robert M. 1999. "Measuring the Convergence/Divergence of “Serious Crime” Arrest Rates for Males and Females: 1960–1995." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15(1):97.
Schwartz, Jennifer, and BryanD. Rookey. 2008. "The Narrowing Gender Gap in Arrests: Assessing Competing Explanations Using Self-Report, Traffic Fatality, and Official Data on Drunk Driving, 1980–2004." Criminology 46(3):637-671.
Schwartz, Jennifer, DarrellSteffensmeier, Hua Zhong, and Jeff Ackerman. 2009. "Trends in the Gender Gap in Violence: Reevaluating NCVS and Other Evidence." Criminology 47(2):401-425.
Steffensmeier, Darrell, Jennifer Schwartz, Hua Zhong, and Jeff Ackerman. 2005. "AnAssessment of Recent Trends in Girls’ Violence using Diverse Longitudinal Sources: Is the Gender Gap Closing?" Criminology 43(2):355-406.
Steffensmeier, Darrell, HuaZhong, Jeff Ackerman, Jennifer Schwartz, and Suzanne Agha.
2006. “Gender Gap Trends for Violent Crimes, 1980 to 2003.” FeministCriminology
1:72-98.
Thompson, Melissa, and Milena Petrovic. 2009. "Gendered Transitions: Within
PersonChanges in Employment, Family, and Illicit Drug Use." Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency 46(3):377-408.
SES
Agnew, Robert, Shelley Keith Matthews, Jacob Bucher, Adria N. Welcher, and CoreyKeyes.
2008. "Socioeconomic Status, Economic Problems, and Delinquency."Youth &
Society 40(2):159-181.
Braithwaite, Johne. 1981. "The Myth of Social Class and Criminality Reconsidered."American Sociological Review 46(1):36-57.
Coleman, James W. 2006. The Criminal Elite: Understanding White-Collar Crime (6th ed.).
New York: Worth.
Dunaway, R. Gregory, Francis T. Cullen, Velmer S. Burton Jr., and T. David Evans. 2000. "The
Myth of Social Class and Crime Revisited: An Examination of Class and Adult
Criminality." Criminology 38(2):589-632.
Farnworth, Margaret, Terence P. Thornberry, Marvin D. Krohn, and Alan J. Lizotte. 1994.
"Measurement in the Study of Class and Delinquency: Integrating Theory and
Research." Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency 31(1):32-61.
Hay, Carter, Edward N. Fortson, Dusten R. Hollist, IrshadAltheimer, and Lonnie M.Schaible. 2007. "Compounded Risk: The Implications for Delinquency of Coming from a Poor Family that Lives in a Poor Community." Journal of Youth & Adolescence 36(5):593-605.
Jarjoura, G. Roger, Ruth A. Triplett, and Gregory P. Brinker. 2002. "Growing Up Poor:Examining the Link Between Persistent Childhood Poverty and Delinquency." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 18(2):159-187.
Piquero, Nicole Leeper, and Alex R. Piquero. 2006. "Control Balance and ExploitativeCorporate Crime." Criminology 44(2):397-430.
Shover, Neal. 1996. Great Pretenders: Pursuits and Careers of Persistent Thieves.Boulder, CO: Westview.
Sutherland, Edwin H. 1940. "White-Collar Criminality." AmericanSociological Review 5(1):1-12.
Tittle, Charles R., Wayne J. Villemez, and Douglas A. Smith. 1978. "The Myth of SocialClass
and Criminality: An Empirical Assessment of the Empirical Evidence."American
Sociological Review 43(5):643-656.
Tittle, Charles R., and Robert F. Meier. 1991. "Specifying the SES/DelinquencyRelationship
by Social Characteristics of Context." Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency
28(4):430-455.
Wright, Bradley R. Entner, AvshalomCaspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Richard A. Miech, and Phil A.
Silva. 1999. "Reconsidering the Relationship Between SES andDelinquency:
Causation but not Correlation." Criminology 37(1):175-194.
Race and Ethnicity
Alpert, Geoffrey P., Roger D. Dunham, and Michael R. Smith. 2007. “InvestigatingRacial
Profiling by the Miami-Dade Police Department: A Multi-method Approach.”
Criminology and Public Policy 6(1):25-55.
Bontrager, Stephanie, William Bales, and Ted Chiricos. 2005. "Race, Ethnicity, Threatand
the Labeling of Convicted Felons." Criminology 43(3):589-622.
Demuth, Stephen. 2003. "Racial and Ethnic Differences in Pretrial Release Decisions and Outcomes: A Comparison of Hispanic, Black, and White Felony Arrestees." Criminology 41(3):873-907.
Felson, Richard B., Glenn Deane, and David P. Armstrong. 2008. "Do Theories of Crime or Violence Explain Race Differences in Delinquency?" Social Science Research 37(2):624-641.
Higgins, George E., Gennaro F. Vito, and William F. Walsh. 2008. “Searches: AnUnderstudied Area of Racial Profiling.” Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 6(1):23-39.
Huebner, Beth M., and Timothy S. Bynum. 2008. "The Role of Race and Ethnicity inParole
Decisions." Criminology 46(4):907-938.
Johnson, Brian D. 2003. "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing Departures Across Modes of Conviction." Criminology 41(2):449-489.
Kerley, Kent R., Michael L. Benson, Mathew R. Lee, and Francis T. Cullen. 2004.“Race,
Criminal Justice Contact, and Adult Position in the Social StratificationSystem.”
Social Problems 51(4):549-568.
Lundman, Richard J., and Robert L. Kaufman. 2003. "Driving While Black: Effects ofRace,
Ethnicity, and Gender on Citizen Self-Reports of Traffic Stops and Police Actions."
Criminology 41(1):195-220.
Paternoster, Raymond, and Robert Brame. 2008. "Reassessing Race Disparities inMaryland Capital Cases." Criminology 46(4):971-1008.
Peterson, Ruth D., and Lauren J. Krivo. 2005. "Macrostructural Analyses of Race,Ethnicity, and Violent Crime: Recent Lessons and New Directions for Research." Annual Review of Sociology 31(1):331-356.
Piquero, Alex R., and Robert W. Brame. 2008. "Assessing the Race-Crime and Ethnicity Crime Relationship in a Sample of Serious Adolescent Delinquents." Crime & Delinquency 54(3):390-422.
Piquero, Alex R. 2009. “Finding the Right Balance between Data, Research, Findings,and Policy in Racial Profiling.” Criminology and Public Policy 8(2):371-379.
Steffensmeier, Darrell, and Stephen Demuth. 2006. "Does Gender Modify the Effects of Race–ethnicity on Criminal Sanctioning? Sentences for Male and Female White, Black, and Hispanic Defendants." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 22(3): 241-
261.
Stewart, Eric A., Eric P. Baumer, Rod K. Brunson, and Ronald L. Simons. 2009."Neighborhood Racial Context and Perceptions of Police-Based Racial Discrimination among Black Youth." Criminology 47(3):847-887.
Wright, Bradley R. Entner, and C. Wesley Younts. 2009. "Reconsidering theRelationship
between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crimeamong African American Youth." Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency 46(3):327-352.
Crime Trends: Historical and Cross-Cultural
Blumstein, A., Rivara, F., and Rosenfeld, R. 2000. “The Rise and Decline of Homicideand
Why.”Annual Review of Public Health 21:505-541.