Thematic Network: The Social Problem and Societal Problematisation of Men and Masculinities
ESTONIAN NATIONAL REPORT ON NEWSPAPER REPRESENTATIONS ON MEN AND MEN’S PRACTICES
WORKPACKAGE 26 , November 2001
Voldemar Kolga
1.Key points
(i)Three papers were surveyed: Postimees (largest circulation national broadsheet), Eesti Päevaleht (the second largest circulation broadsheet ) and SL-Õhtuleht (largest circulation national tabloid). These newspapers publish some articles on men but this is usually in an agendered or gender-implicit way. There are, for example, many articles on president election rally, sports, politics and business that are mostly on men, but they do not discuss or address gender. There were a small number of articles on men in a gender-explicit way. Small numbers of articles in printed media is someway compensated by live discussions in Internet portals.
(ii)There is no significant differences between three newspapers; all the devote almost same quantity articles on men; tabloid (SL-Õhtuleht) gives more space to violence and Postimees (quality) more to work and home.
(iii)Violence was at the first place (40% of all titles), three other topics were divided more equally (ca 20%), however violence nad home and work got same space in newspapers. It means that articles on violence were relatively short.
(iv)The qualitative analyses reveals that gender is mostly presented in a traditional way, with inequality represented as deriving from nature of man and women.
2.The National media and press background and context
2.1. Newspapers in Estonia: a short historical review and current state.
Newspapers has been considered as the most important tool in education and civilization of Estonians. The idea that Estonians were civilized thanks to newspapers is part on national consciousness. In accordance with census data in tsarist Russia (1897) 97% Estonians were literal was certainly result of newspapers, not bible reading.
The first newspaper “Revalishe Post-Zeitung” appeared in 1689, however the first Estonian language weekly newspaper “Tarto maa rahva Näddali Leht “ has been published in 1806, more than hundred year later. Daily newspapers began to appear ca 1860-80s in Estonia, and the newspapers became the major factor in awakening and forming of national identity of Estonians. Finally the Republic of Estonia was established in 1918.
After the Soviet occupation mass media became the tool of communist ideology. At the end of the Soviet regime in 1985 it was printed 447 copies per 1 000 persons that was very high result in the world. Two newspapers “Noorte Hääl” (The youngers ´s voice”) and “Rahva Hääl” (The people`s voice”) had circulations more than 150 000 copies. “Sirp ja vasar”, newspaper of intellectuals had circulation more than 70 000 copies. Personally I remember as I awaked up early Friday morning to buy this newspaper otherwise you did not find deficit newspaper in kiosks. Price of daily newspaper was very low, 2 kopeks as matches box , and this intellectual newspaper cost was 10 kopeks. Now prices are very high to compare former time.
All media was under impact of communist ideology, however directly communist journal “Eesti Kommunist” (Estonian Communist) has circulation only 16 000 copies (note that it was obligatory to order this journal to institutions and libraries) to compare with “Siluett” (fashion journal) 300 000 copies what was achieved thanks Russian language copies; women´s journal “Nõukogude Naine” (Soviet Women) has circulation 175 000 copies, etc (all data from year 1985). It means that even under communist regime people had possibility to make choices pro or contra communism by reading this or other editions.
After regaining independence in 1991 media market became free, privately owned, and independent from state regulation. Only a few newspapers and journals are now supported by state, but it really does not mean state involvement into publishing policy. For instance, “Sirp” follower of intellectual newspaper from Soviet times has government donation. In spite of it circulation is awfully low, only ca 5 000 copies of this weekly is published nowadays (without donation this quality edition should be closed). The following table will demonstrate what has happen in newspapers market of Estonia.
Table 1
Number of titles of newspapers (at the end of year)
Year / 1980 / 1985 / 1990 / 1995 / 1997 / 1999 / 2000Titles / 43 / 49 / 169 / 196 / 102 / 105 / 109
Estonian language / - / - / 110 / 110 / 74 / 73 / 82
Dailies / - / - / 11 / 19 / 15 / 17 / 16
Dailies in Estonian / - / - / - / 14 / 11 / 13 / 12
The first, regaining national independence has caused the explosion in the media market: the number of newspapers titles has been increased ca 4 times compare with Soviet time. It indicates on the beginning of differentiation and /or segmentation of the homogenous society, there are appearing different interest group who liked to have tools – newspapers to express own ideas.
I ´ill like suppose the following index: the relation of population quantity to the number of newspapers titles which may be interpreted as the indices of societal differentiation – the bigger figure indicates on homogenous society. In the case of Estonia the index of societal differentiation is now 11.900 (Estonian population 1 300 000 was divided on the number of newspapers titles 109) contra to the Soviet time´s 28. 600 or in 1995 index was 6 600.
The second, remarkable phenomena is the stabilization of the number of newspapers titles after re-establishing of independence. It seems to be manifestation of media market self-regulation. It is interesting to know, are there same regularities in the post-communist media market (Latvia, Russia, Poland)?
1980 1985 199019952000
Figure 1. Demonstrative curve of the explosion of number of newspaper titles and the beginning of stabilization after 1997.
Behind formal figures dramatic changes have happen in media market. For instance, my favorite new newspaper “Hommikuleht” (Morning newspaper, founded in 1994) was sold in 1997; Rahva Hääl (People´s Voice) was taken over by force and joined with Päevaleht against will of newspaper staff; these journalists created new newspaper “Sõnumileht”, and other turbulences. There were very mixed causes of these changes, from ownership to political interests, unfortunately as I know nobody hasn´t analysed of these changes in Estonian newspaper market.
Now we have main three daily newspapers Postimees, Eesti Päevaleht and SL-Õhtuleht. SL-Õhtuleht was formed by joining of two newspapers Õhtuleht (Evening newspaper) and Sõnumileht (Messages newspaper) SL-Õhtuleht has highest circulation rate (ca 68 000).
If number of newspapers titles is greatly increased, then number of printed copies per 1 000 persons is dramatically dropped, however there is no official statistics about total number of printed copies (see Baltic States and Nordic Countries. Riga, 2000 and The Estonian Statistical Yearbook, 2001). In 1985 this figure in Estonia was 447 copies per 1 000 persons; now in Latvia 146, in Lithuania 105, in Finland 455, Norway 590; it may be that expected figure is not more than 200 copies per 1 000. Of course here is also problem of accounting, because there are at least two free sheets (Linnaleht (Citypaper and Kes.Kus.Mis (Who.Where. What) with high circulation in Tallinn. The main cause of decrease is high price of newspapers. People can´t afford to buy newspapers, many elderly people use libraries. The worse time was in the middle of 90s, when circulation rates were lower than now.
2.1 Recent academic studies on newspapers
Academic studies on newspapers have relatively long tradition in Estonia, and what is even more important – these studies had impact on real publishing policy during Soviet time. Newspaper studies were iniatiated by sociology laboratory in Tartu University already 1965, during Hruschtov melting period. Leader of this group was Ülo Vooglaid, now very respected person in Estonia, former PM, and also by Marju Lauristin (former minister of social affairs), and Peeter Vihalemm. All they were very active persons in the process of independence gaining, now all professors. The goal of study was figure out reception and attitudes of audience of concrete Tartu based local newspaper “Edasi” (under this title appeared old “Postimees” during Soviet regime). This academic study changed imago and content (more people needs orientated) of newspaper, and circulation increased, and Edasi became very respected newspaper in Estonia. So, even under the Soviet regime was small possibility to conduct media studies, however finally in the middle of 70s sociology laboratory was closed. The reason was KGB request.
It is important to emphasize that it wasn´t just a single attempt to conduct study to change society. For instance, Estonian Radio has conducted more than 60 audience surveys from 1975 to 1994. Estonian Radio sociology group used the best statistical programmes of this time made by prof. Ü.Võhandu.
Now the centre of media research is department of media of Tartu University. Between 1994 and 2001 MA degree have obtained 14 students. Unfortunately, titles of dissertations do not tell about studies on audience, and readers attitudes. Esta Härm (1998) has studied changes of readers letters to newspaper Edasi-Postimees from 1986 - 1996 ; Kaido Einmaa (2000) studied code differences between printed and internet version of newspaper.
Only MA dissertation (in psychology) where gender was explicitly studied has been done by Barbi Pilvre (1999); supevisor was Voldemar Kolga. Topic was to study construction of gender in persona column stories in weekly Eesti Ekspress (1994 – 1999). She is working as journalist in this highly evaluated weekly. It was found that women were not only underrepresented, but their feminity was emphasized in these feature stories whereas men were presented in cover stories just human beings, without gender indication.
In Tartu university Epp Lauk (1997) obtained PhD on “Historical and Sociological Perspectives of Estonian Journalism”; Triin Vihalemm (1999) on “Formation of Collective Identity among Russophone population of Estonia”, and Halliki Harro (2001, in Oslo university) on “Changing Journalistic Conventions in the Press. Empirical studies on daily newspapers under different political conditions in 20th century Estonia”. However, gender was not directly presented in these PhD dissertations.
3.The selection of three newspapers
Three (national) newspapers have been selected as follows: 1 largest circulation ‘serious’/’quality’/’broadsheets’; 2 largest circulation serious newspaper, and 3d was
largest circulation ‘popular’/’yellow’/’tabloid
The fisrt was Postimees as the quality newspaper. Its day circulation in 2000 was 64 000. Owner is now Norwegian origin Schibsped ASA. Postimees was founded in 1886, and able to save its identity over hundred years. During Soviet time this newspaper was published under title Edasi (Forward”, however people know the “real” name of newspaper. . The paper has daily the following sections: national news, foreign affairs, economy, opinion, culture, sports. Additionally, some days, Postimees focuses on special themes; cars, tourism, education, and Saturday weekly supplementary Arter is more culturally, life, problem oriented. Postimees website is , site visiting is yet free of charge. There is possibility in Internet to comment almost all articles. So, my article published some month ago received comment so early as 5 AM from USA reader!
Eesti Päevaleht ( ) is the second biggest “quality” newspaper, competing with Postimees for the first place in media market, however now is clear that this newspaper should satisfy with second place. Owner is Estonian Ekspress Group, now 100% (H.H. Luik bought all shares a some day ago from Swedes). The circulation is ca 42 000 copies.
SL-Õhtuleht ( is the biggest newspaper in Estonia. It is available across the country. Circulation is ca 68 000, a little bit more than circulation of Postimees, really both newspapers are equal. Title is unusual – it refers on two newspapers which were unified a couple of years ago. Õhtuleht was typical evening newspaper; SL –Sõnumileht was newspaper created by journalists themselves, however it can´t survive in market struggle. SL-Õhtuleht took empty nische in media market what was free after disappearing the first tabloid Post.
We used the following guidelines in the process of choosing articles:
- include articles which explicitly and implicitly discuss masculinity or masculinities.
- and those articles whose focus is centrally on the activities of a man or men, even if they do not explicitly make links between the subject and masculinity.
We excluded material where a man or men are mentioned but the focus is not centrally on them, for instance sport and business.
4.Quantitative analysis of coverage
This Workpackage 4 focuses on the review of two weeks’ Estonian press output to examine explicit and implicit analyses on men and masculinities, and their problematisation. Postimees, Eesti Päevaleht and SL-Õhtuleht were gathered for the whole of May, but the analysis is based on the first two whole weeks of the period, i.e. from May 7 to May 20. This material consisted of 40 newspaper issues with supplements, altogether 2540 pages.
The following calculations were made (see Excel tables):
a)Average total number of pages per day of each paper, including supplements, during the 2 week period;
b)Average total square centimetres per day of the whole paper, including supplements, during the 2 weeks;
c)Average number of pages per day of each paper, including supplements, devoted to advertising during the 2 weeks;
d)Average total square centimetres per day of the whole paper, including supplements, devoted to advertising during the 2 weeks;
e)For each paper for each day number of articles addressing men in relation to the 4 themes: Home and Work, Social Exclusion, Violences, Health; in addition an ‘Other’ category for articles on men that do not fit the 4 main themes;
f) For each paper for each day total square centimetres (including title of the article and any pictures attached to the article) of articles addressing men in relation to the 4 themes: Home and Work, Social Exclusion, Violences, Health; in addition an Other category for article on men that do not fit the 4 main themes.
In comparing the three newspapers with each other, three things have to be taken into consideration. The first, Estonian newspapers are very similar: same quantity pages, average between 29 and 32, minimum 24 maximum 52. Secondly, the space devoted to advertising is exactly same in three newspapers – ca 42 %. And finally, no differences between newspapers in amount of articles on men issues. Newspapers published 12 – 13 articles during these period.
Table 2
Amount of articles on men and masculinities.
Newspaper / Work & home / Social exclusion / Violence / Health / totalPostimees / 3 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 12
Eesti Päevaleht / 2 / 2 / 5 / 3 / 12
SL-Õhtuleht / 2 / 4 / 7 / 0 / 13
total / 7 19% / 8 22% / 15 40% / 7 19% / 37 100%
As we see amount of articles on violence was the highest, 40% from all articles, however these articles were shorter than articles on work and home
Tabel 3
Space devoted in cm/2 on men issues and masculinities
Newspaper / Work & home / Social exclusion / Violence / Health / total / % from all articlesPostimees / 2 700 / 1000 / 1 000 / 2 600 / 7 300 / 0.025
Eesti Päevaleht / 1 900 / 200 / 1 900 / 800 / 4 800 / 0.018
SL-Õhtuleht / 1000 / 2100 / 3 000 / 0 / 6 100 / 0.021
Total / 5 600 30% / 3 300 18% / 5 900 33% / 3 400 19% / 18 200
100%
Figure 2
Space devoted on men issues in different newspapers.
It seems that Estonian tabloid SL-Õhtuleht devotes relatively more space on violence and social exclusion to compare with other newspapers, and Postimees more space on home-work topics. However, do not forget that devoted space on men issues in extremely low, only ca 0.02% from all articles in newspaper, space on advertisement was excluded.
To improve “bad” picture it is needed to mention that in Internet portals as Delfi and Mega have been very lively and active discussions on gender equality, roles of men and women in society. Some discussions have attracted hundred comments. It means that Estonian society isn`t indifferent to gender equality issues, especially younger and active part of society. However, unfortunately it is quite common that articles written by feminist as Iivi Masso (she stays now in Finland), Barbi Pilvre, Katrin Kivimaa (now in England), and others would receive usually very aggressive macho responses and even personal attacks. There is no censorship in portals discussion groups. However, Internet can compensate passivity of newspapers, so it raised very active discussion on new gender equality law what was passed to the Parlament to compare with printed media.
- Qualitative analysis of coverage
In May 2001 the most presented and discussed were Estonian victory in Eurovision contest and president election rally, and as it was expected in both were men involved. To develop other viewpoint Ene Paaver in EPL wrote funny article under title “Mister – the first lady”; it was about Estonians possible reactions to` Women president husband`. However, it is imaginary situation and newspapers devoted much space to president health examination, and to their family and possible love affairs.
Relatively big space was given to several rape stories in the beginning of May. Aliments stories are also visible, for instance, such case that aliment debtor was announced winner of “Healthy and strong family” contest.
A big story happened in bike bar where racist announcement was found: no dirty men in bar. By the way very violent advertisement has Statoil (very serious bikers in black skin). Social exclusion problems are presented under title “Homos compile lists with enemy names” or articles about homeless men.
Typical articles about men have such titles as “Men satisfy love of adventure by travelling and forget about career” or “Top-businessmen earned millions in last year”. Gender has been implicitly presented here, however as exclusion gender may be focused directly in rare cases.
Postimees ,May 17, 2001 devoted whole page to survey conducted by Estonian statistical office on education and labour market in gender context. The second page (very good place in newspaper) was under general title: “Women are more successful at school, men in labour market”. It was found that in universities there are 2 500 women more than men , total figure was 25 200. The only specialites where still are more men are following: mathematics, PC, technique, and agriculture. Page is illustrated by chemistry auditorium in Tartu University big picture where we can´t see men. It is clear sign: men are loosing own position, even in chemistry. It was revealed that in all education levels men have more troubles, especially boys from rural districts. In university differences even became larger: men drop out more easily than women, and only small percent men are able to graduate from university right time. Reason is that “labour market needs men hands” as subtitle stated. There are also comments from PM and social scientist. Ministry of social affairs agreed that there are unequal opportunites in labor market, however it is not caused by discrimination, rather result of tradition. The main tone is that unequality of salaries is result “normal” labour division, men work where they are better, and women where they are better. The main idea is that women success at schools and men success in labour market is rather natural law: nothing to do with nature. And Scandinavian quota system is not ideal for Estonia, because we know Soviet gender equality.