The Rise of Islam and the Iconoclastic Controversy
The Roman or Byzantine Empire was at almost continuous war between in the early 600s, including a civil war and a long and very destructive war with Persia. In 630 AD, Arabia had just been united by Mohammed under the religion of Islam. Two years later, Mohammed died and his successors were eager to expand Islamic control into the territory of Arabia’s weakened northern neighbour, the Byzantine Empire.
In the 634 AD, Muslim Arab armies entered Byzantine Palestine and Syria, defeating the Byzantine in several pitched battles. The Arabs then decisively defeated the Byzantine army at a major battle at Yarmuk in 636 AD. Soon after, Muslims captured the city of Damascus and the holy city of Jerusalem. During the Arab invasions, non-orthodox Christian populations within the Empire, such as Nestorians in Syria, Monophysites in Egypt and Jews in Palestine welcomed the Muslim armies, seeing them as liberators after centuries of religious disputes within the Empire.
Meanwhile, the Byzantines, unable to defend their southern borders, withdrew to more defensible Mountains in Northern Syria. Gradually, Arab armies swept across and conquered the defenceless lands in Egypt, Libya and North Africa. These wars, invasions and raids left the Byzantine Empire in ruins. By the late 600s and the early 700s Emperors tried to prevent further losses by building fortresses along their new borders. This was a time of dramatic cultural transition and insecurity within Byzantium. This trauma influenced how Byzantines thought about religion.
In the 730s a military man, Leo III became a successful warrior emperor of the Byzantine Emperor. Leo was from Northern Syria, in the borders lands, which had large Monophysite, Jewish and Muslim population. This emperor, a devout Christian, perhaps influenced by Muslim and Jewish prohibitions on the veneration of religious images, initiated a policy of Iconoclasm, state led prohibition of religious imagery. For the next one hundred years, Byzantium fell into a deep and violent internal crisis over Iconoclasm.
In the end, the Iconoclasts lost the struggle and the 7th Ecumenical Council stated that the veneration of icons was not idolatrous if it were done in the right spirit. To venerate an icon or a relic is to venerate the person that this image or relic represents.
Byzantine Empire 550 AD Byzantine Empire 717 AD
(1) Arabic Legend of ‘Jonah the Lover’
A story describing the Muslim conquest of the city of Damascus in Syria 635 AD
“Jonah, son of Marcus, was a Greek Christian whose marriage had been interrupted by the Muslim siege of Damascus. His young fiancées’ parents claimed to be too busy to finalize the ceremony. The frustrated Jonah climbed over the wall and offered to give Khalid, the Muslim commander, useful information in return for help in obtaining his bride. Jonah told them that on the night of September 18 there would be a religious festival in the city and only a few guards would be on duty. Ropes and ladders were borrowed from the neighbouring monastery and as assault party breached the defences without difficulty. During the disorder that followed, Jonah the Lover found his bride. But the girl killed herself rather than accept a man who betrayed his Christian friends.”
(2) Treatise on Hebron
Jews aid the Muslim conquest of the town of Hebron, Modern Israel 638 AD
“When the Arabs came to Hebron, they marveled at the strong and the beautifully constructed walls and there were no openings by which they could enter. Some Jews who had remained under the Byzantines in that region, came over to them and said ‘Grant us security so that we may have a similar status among you. If you do this, we will show you where you should make a gateway.’ And thus it was done.”
(3) Bishop John Of Nikiu
The Egyptians (mainly Monophysites) surrender to the Muslims - 641 AD
“The Patriarch of Alexandria Cyrus went to the Muslims, seeking an offer of tribute to procure peace from them and put a stop to the war in the land of Egypt. They fixed the amount of the tribute to be paid. The Byzantines were to cease warring against the Muslims and the Muslims were to desist from seizing Christian Churches. And when the Patriarch had concluded this negotiation and all the troops and people of Alexandria paid homage to the Patriarch. While things were in this condition, the Muslims came to receive the tribute and the Alexandrians on seeing them made ready for battle. And the villagers who through their fear of the Muslims fled to the city of Alexandria made the following request to the Patriarch – let the Muslims promise that we may return to our towns and become their subjects. And he negotiated for them according to their requests. And the Muslims took possession of all the land of Egypt, and tripled their taxes.”
(4) Cardinal Schonborn (A modern Scholar)
Describes Abuses of the Cult of Images During Iconoclasm
“Among the numerous miracles reported and believed in the connection with icons, there were certainly some whose authenticity was questioned, with good reason, by the iconoclasts: that a miraculous image of Mary, where milk would occasionally flow out of its breasts, but which milk was poured into the image as later research has determined, from behind through a straw.”
(5) Saint John of Damascus
Describes the Muslims and the Iconoclasts written c. 743 AD
“The Muslims accuse Christians of being idolaters, because we venerate the cross.”
“The Iconoclasts have shown deliberate dishonor to all the holy and venerable images and have consigned them to be broken up and burnt. Some of those painted on walls, they have scraped off, while others they have obliterated with whitewash and black paint.”
(6) Decree of an Iconoclast Church Council
Describes the Iconoclast view about Icons – 754 AD
“Condemned be everyone who attempts to capture the likeness of the saints with material colours in lifeless and mute icons – for such images are of no use. To fashion them is a nonsensical idea and a devilish intention, taking the place of depicting in ourselves the virtues of the saints.”
(7) Life of Saint Anthousa
An Iconoclast Emperor journeys to an abbess who defended the images - 756 AD
“Then when the iconoclast emperor was traveling through that province with his entire army on campaign against the Arabs, he intended to go summon the great image defending Abbess Anthousa and question her himself. As a result of her prayers, blindness bound him fast and prevented him from carrying out his plans against her.”
(8) Decree of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (2nd Council of Nicaea)
Describes the orthodox Catholic understanding of icons – 787 AD
“Some now despise God’s gift, incited by the trickeries of Satan and have deviated from the orthodox doctrine. They have contradicted the tradition of the Catholic Church. One of these traditions is the painting of icons. It serves the purpose of strengthening our faith in the true and not imagined Word of God. The more often we look through means of images, the more we remind ourselves, as we see these likenesses, of the true and living originals whom we love and we venerate their images not in that kind of worship that is reserved for what is of divine nature.”
(9) Life of Saints David, Symeon and George of Lesbos
Describes an Arab raid on the Greek Islands in c. 825 AD
“In defence of orthodox dogma and holy icons, friends and brothers were fighting against each other. When this disaster befell the entire state of the Christians with God’s permission, the Arabs of North Africa made a small challenge to the Emperor’s authority. When they saw that the emperor and his troops were fighting in the East and campaigning, the Arabs built a few ships and were raiding here and there in the islands, which were undefended. They took captive their inhabitants and mercilessly seized their property.”
Iconoclasm Assignment
Imagine that you are an ambassador sent by the Pope Sergius II to the Byzantine Empire in the year 845AD. Iconoclasm has just finished and the Pope Sergius II wants you to send him a brief report explaining why the empire went through this long crisis.
The Pope Sergius II says that he has been told several theories about why the Empire has suffered from the Islamic invasions and gripped by iconoclasm. Look at the following theories and describe in your own letter what you think is the best explanation. (You can combine the theories or create your own theory in answering the Pope.)
· The Muslim victories were the result of divine punishment for Byzantine idolatry (idolatry = worshiping something other than God).
· Byzantines failed to seriously resist the Muslim invasion and then blamed their defeat on icon veneration.
· Wanting to imitate Muslim military success, Byzantine iconoclasts copied the Muslim prohibition of venerating icons.
Read the passage about “the Rise of Islam and Iconoclasm”, the nine quoted passages, and pages 121-122 of your textbook.
- Answer the Pope in a letter format, addressed to Pope Sergius II.
- Your letter should be 1-2 pages double spaced (handwritten or typed).
- Cite your sources (Source 1), (Source 2), etc…
- Make sure you address the theories mentioned by Pope Sergius II.
(Remember that Pope Sergius II supports the 7th Ecumenical Council & icon veneration)