Running Head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Annotated Bibliography

Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Research Based Eco-Tourism at the Wakatobi National Park: Annotated Bibliography

Emily McIntyre

3378148

TREN 3P90

John Middleton

June 25, 2007

Annotated Bibliography

Prior to research at the Wakatobi National Park, extensive secondary research has been conducted to gain worldly insights on the issues of sustainability, as well as learning more about the current situation of the Park itself. This bibliography represents articles that look at sustainability through political, environmental, spiritual, social and many other standpoints. Cultural, social and economical issues are looked at in great depth to benchmark models of best practice or to learn from certain countries mistakes. This research can collectively help come up with new and innovative ways to help preserve the national park while Operation Wallacea conducts marine and cultural research.

Altieri, M.A. (1998). Ecological impacts of industrial agriculture and the possibilities for truly sustainable farming. Monthly Review, 50 (3), 60-72.

This article examines the environmental problems occurring from industrial agriculture, such as: suppressed insects, weeds, and diseases, high chemical inputs, agricultural waste, soil depletion and erosion. Although low-cost food can be produced from industrial agriculture, there are a variety of economic, environmental and social problems. Examples of these implications include the loss of crop, wild plant and animal genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies of pests and destruction of natural control mechanisms.

This article is relevant as Sulawesi has great potential to develop some forms of industrial agriculture such as corn, soybean and sugarcane plantations. Therefore it is important to understand the implications it can lead to as well as the shift that could occur from the traditional and cultural forms of farming. Maintaining their traditional ways of farming would be a more sustainable way of securing self-sufficiency, preserving natural resources as well as social and economic viability.

Coastal Area Management: Integrating Environmental Objectives into Harbour Planning. (1999). Global Development Research Centre. Retrieved June 6th from:

This article examines harbours and recognizes the importance of having them for their critical role in trade and transportation. The harbours act as a preventive base for natural disasters, many employment opportunities as well as recreational activities and other harbour activities. Since it is an industrial and manufacturing zone and a complex-function space, this article recognizes the need for surveys and designs to be implemented as well as project development that contributes to the continuous development of the local and global economy. A holistic standpoint has been developed that recognizes the need to protect and reduce the negative environmental impacts of the coast and the ocean. Outlined in this article is a ‘CAM continuum’, which provides policies on coastal area management. There are also interesting points that the Kaledupan’s of the Wakatobi National Park need to be mindful of such as the fact that fish production from most of the world’s fisheries has reached or exceeded levels to which the fish can regenerate themselves. This article also states that about 80% of pollution comes from runoff pollution which are small sources such as septic tanks, cars, ranches and forest areas.

This article is very accurate about the exploitative nature of humans on the ocean’s natural resources and how initiatives need to be implemented to ensure sustainable production and consumption to help conserve our ocean. A holistic approach through policy, management, technology innovations, with a planning process that responds to the ecological and socio-economic conditions, is the active stance that they want to take as well as a shift from traditional roles. The CAM process also entails participation from the general public and communities with a distinctive role from the beginning as well as integrated cooperation approaches.

Elliot, G., Mitchell, B., Wiltshire, B., Manan, A., & Wismer, S. (2001). Community Participation in Marine Protected Area Management: Wakatobi National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia: Coastal Management, 29 (4), 295-316.

This paper outlines the apparent issues in relation to the fishing operations at the Wakatobi National Park. Many problems are caused in part by the people being unaware of their absolute dependence on the sea. This paper also outlined ways to raise awareness.

This paper outlines how rules, regulations and maximum yield quotas alongside conservation policies are also at conflict with the interests of the local people. It discusses problems arising from an expanding human population, national and international markets for valuable marine resources live-reef fish trade, a lack of defensible marine boundaries and a history of corruption at all levels of government.

Therefore, eco-tourism can be a way of differentiating their economy, but tourists affect the corals directly through boating, reef walking, swimming, snorkeling and scuba diving. There are also indirect consequences such as building infrastructure to serve tourists, using reef resources for food and the use of the coastal waters for waste assimilation. Therefore, from what has been gathered from this article, tourism can only been seen as positive in the sense that it will bring in money to the local economy. In terms of sustaining life in the reefs, it will only help protect the reefs from further damage such as from fish bombing. In that case, tourism would act as a viable solution so the locals no longer need to rely on these harmful fishing operations to make an income.

The paper outlines problems arising from illegal fishing as well as problems arising from lack of education and awareness about the environmental issues. For example the burning of garbage in some of the villages, waste going directly into the water and women washing their clothes at the sides of their houses and the detergent is contributing to the pollution.

Graci, S. and McKenna, J. (2005). British Columbia’s Environmental Assessment Process in K. Hanna Environmental Assessment in Canada: Participation and Practice Toronto: Oxford University Press.

This article describes the environmental assessment process in British Columbia. The usefulness of the article in an Indonesian context is limited because the legislation is very individualistic to British Columbia. Some environmental issues in British Columbia are also very individualistic to their province, such as energy projects and mass tourist ski resorts. Relative to Indonesia, legislation is much more advanced within British Columbia, and enforcement is not affected by corruption.

There are areas of legislation in British Columbia that have their strengths and can be used as a benchmark such as including the public, community organizations and special interest groups as well as First Nations consultation. Their legislation also puts a lot of emphasis on early consultations and follows a five-step consultation assessment to ensure management is properly engaged.

Jack M. (2006, March). Urbanization, Sustainable Growth and Poverty Reduction in Asia. Institute of Development Studies. Symposium conducted at Promoting Growth, Ending Poverty: Asia 2015 Conference.

This article outlines how urbanization in Asia has led to over 600 million people living in poverty, lacking sanitation and with infrequent access only to low-quality water. Governments and international development agencies are faced with how to achieve poverty reduction and economic development. It suggests that governments in these countries can learn from each other’s practices, and refers to partnership-based approaches that emphasize positive future planning which occurs in Cambodia and the Philippines. By cooperating with community led initiatives and local partners, a large span of ideas can be implemented from the local to global level.

This type of urban development issue is not applicable to Wakatobi National Park, as it is important to conserve the national park. However, one lesson that can be learned from this article is how developers and stakeholders can form partnerships and work together to develop shared facilities and responsible resource use.

Kaur, C. R. (n.d.). National Ecotourism Plan: Assessing Implementation of the Guidelines for Marine Parks: Maritime Institute of Malaysia. Retrieved June 13 from

This paper examines how guidelines for ecotourism in marine parks in Malaysia have been implemented under pressure from mass tourism and development.

Malaysia has a seven-part sustainable development plan, which pertains to areas such as limits of acceptable change and community. Innovative sustainable methods, such as energy saving devices, water management and waste management, are discussed. Key issues include overcrowding, environmental degradation, coral reef damage and lack of enforcement of existing regulations. How small-scale tourism development can be collectively more damaging than big operations is also discussed. This article is very insightful in relation to the Wakatobi National Park, as there are similarities to Malaysian National Parks. Fish bombing, which is a huge issue in both countries as well as the lack of enforcement and regulation.

This article acts as an effective case study for management of the Wakatobi National Park and includes tables, charts and diagrams of tourism-related issues to help outline the problematic areas of developed marine tourism destinations.

Levitt, R. & McNally, R. (2003). A Strategic Environmental Assessment of Fiji’s Tourism Development Plan: World Summit of Sustainable Development

This article is an assessment of the impact of socio-economic trends on the Fiji environment. This included the damage to the coral reefs from boating, diving, sewage and seepage from landfills. This assessment encompasses six program areas: forest conservation; marine conservation; freshwater management; climate change; species conservation and capacity building. Similar to the Indonesia, Fiji does not have enough political will or administrative capacity to ensure that sustainable operations and policies are implemented. Therefore, both countries have to improve regulations and monitors in order to minimize the irreplaceable damage on their coral reefs.

The paper outlines how stakeholders are operating their ventures and how prospective tourists can make more sustainable decisions. The direct and indirect impacts of tourism are discussed as well as contingency plans to guard against risk. Which would be a strong recommendation for tourism operators at the Wakatobi National Park to adopt as there tourism is seasonal and many external factors affect a tourists decision to travel there. Bali was used as a case study within this article and how many locals are not pleased with the growing social and environmental problems they are faced with. This further emphasizes the need for Operation Wallacea to continue positive relationships with the locals by surveying them to ensure their shared objectives are considered in the tourism management plan.

Mok, C. & DeFranco, A.L. (1999). Chinese Cultural Values: Their Implications for Travel and Tourism Marketing. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 8(2), 99-114. Retreived June 6th, 2007 from

This article notes the implications to travel and tourism marketing in relation to the dominant Chinese culture. The desire to live in harmony is predominant in the Chinese culture. Therefore the Chinese will rarely complain unless they are completely dissatisfied, making it difficult for marketers to take on a pro-active approach.

This article also outlines how the open door policy and influx of foreign tourists also brought westernized ideals into the Chinese people’s lives. Therefore this article is individualistic to Chinese culture and Chinese-dominated regions such as China, Singapore and Taiwan. The issues addressed in this article are not immediately relevant to the issues of a rural, undeveloped area such as the Wakatobi National Park.

Paolo, S. (2004). The Price of Success. The Economist Print Edition (how to reference newspaper article? [I can’t locate this – what’s its url and I can suggest a citation]

This article identifies the challenges that the Brazilians are faced with between saving their forest, or meeting the demands of consumers and boosting their economy. Many farms are on traditional rainforest lands and are often illegally occupied rather than bought. Deforestation has increased even when growth is weak. Exports have reduced Brazil’s dependence on foreign capital, but may not be sustainable. The environment ministry has placed ‘ecological-economic zoning”, which is a start to preserving certain areas, but monitoring needs to take place to ensure this policy is effective. This article also shows how they are taking steps towards zoning areas and coming up with ways to benefit the economy while maintaining the environment.

This article can act as a point of reference for Wakatobi National Park and their reliance on fish farming, as there are strategies for improving the economy while attempting to maintain the environment. This can also be a point of reference if the Wakatobi National Park wants to take steps towards zoning and enforcing policies.

Philips, R.A. (2000). The Environment as a stakeholder? A Fairness Based Approach: Journal of Business Ethics 23, 185-197.

This article demonstrates the debate of how the environment should hold stakeholder status through a fairness-based approach. This paper explains the difference between one who is required to do something and one who feels the moral obligation and voluntarily acts in a certain way. There is a reasonable debate about the philosophy and ethics behind the natural environment meriting stakeholder status, but at times gets a bit too wordy and steers away from the point.

Many Indonesians are unaware of their ecological footprint, and by placing more emphasis on the environment as a stakeholder; it may help to overcome some of the barriers that are existent. This article mentions issues such as the exploitative use of resources with the overlapping interest of maintaining natural resources. Which is pertinent to the Wakatobi National Park, as they want to differentiate their economy from fish bombing by offering eco-tourist based activities. This article brings up worthy of note points from religious, political, economic, ethical and anthropocentric standpoints on a fairness based approach to stakeholder status and ecologically sound operations.

Quattrone, G. (2002). Urban Development Strategies: The “Tourism City Network” Symposium conducted at the EURA Conference Urban and Spatial European Policies: Levels of Territorial Government.

This paper focuses on a conventional approach on strategic planning for tourism development. It emphasizes sustainable practices and local strategies, stakeholders and partnerships. It also ties in economic, social, cultural, political and environmental implications. It outlines the tourism planning process. This paper also outlines how to strategically assess and evaluate tourism in a sustainable manner as well as offering innovative ideas and programs, such as training programs and tourism-related legislation.

The description of the tourist planning process can act as a guideline at the Wakatobi National Park. The Wakatobi National Park could use this planning process as a guide, but would have to adopt many specific tasks that are individualistic to the area in order to achieve economic integration. This article is limited as it is a basic level of understanding for tourism operations.

Roman, G, S, J., Dearden, P. & Rollands, R. (2007). Application of Zoning and “Limits of Acceptable Change” to Snorkel Tourism. Environment Management 39 (6) 819-830.

This paper documents the limits of acceptable change in relation to snorkel tourism using a case study fromKoh Chang National Marine Park in Thailand. This National Park has been acclaimed as one of South East Asia’s hotspots and therefore their coral reef zoning system can act as a benchmark for other areas in Asia that have yet to be discovered by mass amounts of tourists. Through experimental research at the Koh Chang National Marine Park, they were able to determine which types of coral could withstand tourist activities and which were more affected by trampling, sunscreens and so on. By applying the LAC (Limits of Acceptable Change) model, they propose 4 zoning categories: Conservation Zones, Tourism Zones, Eco-tourism Zones and General Use Zones.

As scuba diving and snorkelling will be the main draws to Hoga, this is an extremely relevant article for the Wakatobi National Park. It can provide guidelines for determining what areas are acceptable for tourists to partake in recreational activities. This may also help to demolish the illegal fish bombing operations that occur at the reefs.

Ross, A. & Pickering, K. (2002). The politics of reintegrating Australian aboriginal and American Indian indigenous knowledge into resource management: The dynamics of resource appropriation and cultural revival. Human Ecology 30 (2), 187- 215.

Aboriginal cultures in Australia and North America developed life styles that ensured sustainability from generation to generation. This has now been threatened because of changes to their language, culture and access to traditional resources. This is in result of a number of reasons such as European invasion, global industrialization, degradation of traditional lands and so on. This article discusses how indigenous knowledge can be studied and applied so that resources are managed in a sustainable fashion.