SOI Table 1. A summary of data-driven case studies of ecosystem service provision and associated factors conducted in Singapore.
Ecosystem service / Key finding / ReferenceProvisioning
Agriculture / Various statistics on pre-Independence agricultural land use and production / Dobby 1940
Agriculture / Statistics on consumption of locally produced agricultural products / Hill 1980
Agriculture / Statistics on agricultural production and consumption / AVA 2015
Agriculture / Statistics on agricultural production / Khan 1988
Aquaculture / Statistics on aquacultural production and consumption / Chou & Lee 1996
Aquaculture / Statistics on aquacultural production and reasons for increase / FAO 1976
Fishing / Quantified wild fishing catches and equipment used / Gibson-Hill 1950
Regulating
Watershed / Quantified flood patterns and their link to urbanization / Chow et al. 2016b
Watershed / Quantified the role of vegetation and urban surfaces in trapping pollutants / Nguyen et al. 2012
Watershed / Historical analysis of urban forest use in Singapore / Webb 1998
Watershed / Historical analysis of the use of forests for watershed services / O’Dempsey 2014
Microclimate / Peak urban heat island effect occurs 2-4 hours after sunset, to a maximum of 7 °C / Chow & Roth 2006
Microclimate/cultural / Perceived and measured climate factors differ in the local population using a park / Chow et al. 2016a
Microclimate / Vegetated areas reuce maximum daytime temperature by 2.2 °C / Gupta et al. 2015
Microclimate / Shading by vegetation is important for micro-scale cooling e.g., along paths / Hwang et al. 2015
Microclimate / Vegetation cover reduces temperatures experienced in an industrial estate / Jusuf et al. 2014
Microclimate / Vegetation cover has important micro-scale, but no local-scale impact on thermal comfort / Lim 2014
Microclimate / Different types of vegetation have different measured microclimatic impacts / Nicol 1993
Microclimate / Urban areas are 1.5-3.5°C warmer than vegetated areas / Nieuwolt 1966
Microclimate / Summary of < 12 studies show urban areas are >3.5°C warmer than vegetated areas / Roth & Chow 2012
Microclimate/cultural / Young Singaporeans dislike some parks due to thermal discomfort / Saw et al. 2016
Microclimate / Different urban forms affect the provision of microclimatic serices by vegetation / Tan & Ismail 2015
Microclimate / Shading by vegetation has greatest effect on mean radiant temperature differential / Tan et al. 2013
Microclimate / Urban greenery reduces mean radiant temperature / Tan et al. 2014
Microclimate / Evapotranspiration of urban greenery reduces mean radiant temperature / Tan et al. 2015
Microclimate / Urban greenery reduces building temperatures and energy consumption / Wong et al. 2002
Microclimate / Urban greenery reduces building temperatures / Wong et al. 2003
Microclimate / Vegetation shading reduces temperatures in pedestrianised areas / Wong & Jusoff 2010
Microclimate/cultural / Wind speed and landscape design important variables in thermal comfort in urban parks / Yang & Wong 2013
Carbon / Primary rainforest stores 337 Mg C ha-1 and secondary forest stores 274 Mg C ha-1 / Ngo et al. 2013
Carbon / Roadside trees store 83 540 Mg C and parkland trees store 13 850 Mg C / Tan et al. 2009
Carbon / Nationally. Mangroves containt 450 572 Mg C (469 Mg C ha-1) / Friess et al. 2016
Carbon / Mangroves store 497 Mg C ha-1, seagrass stores 138 Mg C ha-1, mudflats store least carbon / Phang et al. 2015
Carbon / Urban trees are a source of carbon emissions over short time scales / Velasco et al. 2013
Cultural
Broad cultural / Importance of “natural wealth” and social construction of nature in Singapore / Kong & Yeoh 1996
Broad cultural / Different parts of a mangrove park are valued for different cultural ecosystem services / Richards & Friess 2015
Broad cultural / Cultural changed from 1980 to 2014 from intangible to tangible cultural services / Thiagarajah et al. 2015
Recreation / Park connectors are used more frequently by older Singaporeans / Yuen et al. 1999
Associated studies
Land cover change / Various examples of land cover change and urbanization / De Konick et al. 2008
Land cover change / Rapid loss of coastal habitats from 1950s to 1990s / Hilton & Manning 1995
Land cover change / Rapid loss of coastal habitats from 1990s to 2030 / Lai et al. 2015
Mangrove extent / Mangroves cover 659 ha / Yee et al. 2010
Parks / Describes distribution and uses of urban green spaces in Singapore / Henderson 2013
Parks / Description of park policy development in Singapore / Ooi 1992
Vegetation extent / Land cover map of Singapore quantified by remote sensing / Yee et al. 2011
Seagrass extent / At least 33.7 ha of seagrass have been mapped in Singapore / Yaakub et al. 2013
Species loss / Habitat loss exceeds 95% since 1819 and species extinctions are as much as 87% / Brook et al. 2003
References
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Brook BW, Sodhi NS, Ng PKL (2003) Catostrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature 424:430–423
Chou R, Lee HB (1997) Commercial marine fish farming in Singapore. Aquac Res 28:767–776
Chow WTL, Roth M (2006) Temporal dynamics of the urban heat island of Singapore. Int J Climatol 26:2243–2260
Chow WTL, Cheong BD, Ho BH (2016a) A multimethod approach towards assessing urban flood patterns and its associated vulnerabilities in Singapore. Adv Meteorol 2016:7159132
Chow WTL, Akbar SN, Heng SL, Roth M (2016b) Assessment of measured and perceived microclimates within a tropical urban forest. Urban For Urban Green 16:62–75
De Koninck R,Drolet J, Gird M (2008) Singapore: an atlas of perpetual territorial transformation. NUS Press, Singapore
Dobby EHG (1940) Singapore: town and country. Geogr Rev 30:84–109
FAO (1976) National plan for development of aquaculture in Singapore. In: Aquaculture Planning in Asia. Aquaculture Development and Coordinating Programme, Food and Agricultural Organization, Bangkok
Friess DA, Richards DR, Phang VXH (2016) Mangrove forests store high densities of carbon across the tropical urban landscape of Singapore. Urb Ecosyst
Gibson-Hill CA (1950) Thefishing boats operated from Singapore Island. J Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Soc 23:148–170
Gupta S, Anand P, Shashwat (2015) Improvement of outdoor thermal comfort for a residential development in Singapore. Int J Energy Environ 6:567–586
Henderson J (2013) Urban parks and greenspaces in Singapore. Manag Leis 18:213–225
Hill RD (1980) Singapore – an Asian City State. GeoJournal 4:5–12
Hilton MJ, Manning SS (1995) Conversion of coastal habitats in Singapore: indications of unsustainable development. Environ Conserv 22:307–322
Hwang YH,LimQJ, Chang YK (2015) Micro-scale thermal perfomance of tropical urban parks in Singapore. Build Environ 94:467–476
Jusuf SK, Wong NH, Wong ZY, Tan E (2014) Transformation of industrial planning in Singapore: study on the microclimatic condition of different industrial estates. Build Environ 80:48–60
Khan H (1988) Roleof agriculture in a City-State Economy: the case of Singapore. ASEAN Econ Bull 5:178–182
Kong L,Yeoh BS (1996) Social constructions of nature in urban Singapore. Southeast Asian Stud 34:402–423
Lai S, Loke LH, Hilton MJ, Bouma TJ, Todd PA (2015) The effects of urbanization on coastal habitats and the potential for ecological engineering: a Singapore case study. Ocean Coast Manag 103:78–85
Lim V (2014) Measuring and modelling spatial variation of temperature and thermal comfort in a low-density neighbourhood in Singapore. Unpublished Masters Thesis, National University of Singapore
Ngo KM, Turner BL, Muller-Landau HC, Davies SJ, Larjavaara M, Hassan NF, Lum S (2013) Carbon stocks in primary and secondary tropical forests in Singapore. For Ecol Manag 296:81–89
Nguyen VT, Gin KY-H, Reinhard M, Lio C (2012) Occurrence, fate, and fluxes of perfluorochemicals (PFCs) in an urban catchment: Marina Reservoir, Singapore. Water Sci Technol 66:2439–2446
Nichol JE (1993) Monitoring Singapore’s microclimate. Geogr Info Syst 4:51–55
Nieuwolt S (1966) The urban microclimate of Singapore. J Trop Geogr 22:30–37
O’Dempsey T (2014) Singapore’s changing landscape since c. 1800. In: Barnard T (ed) Nature contained: environmental histories of Singapore. NUS Press, Singapore
Ooi GL (1992) Public policyand park development in Singapore. Land Use Policy 9:64–75
Phang VXH, Chou LM, Friess DA (2015) Ecosystem carbon stocks across a tropical intertidal habitat mosaic of mangrove forest, seagrass meadow, mudflat and sandbar. Earth Surf Process Landf 40:1387–1400
Richards DR, Friess DA (2015) A rapid indicator of cultural ecosystem service usage at a fine spatial scale: content analysis of social media photographs. Ecol Indic 53:187–195
Roth M, Chow WTL(2012) A historical review and assessment of urban heat island research in Singapore. Singap J Trop Geogr 33:381–397
Saw LE, Lim FK, Carrasco LR (2015) The relationship between natural park usage and happiness does not hold in a tropical city-state. PLoS ONE 10, e0133781
Tan CL, Wong NH, Jusuf SK (2013a) Outdoor mean radiant temperature estimation in the tropical urban environment. Build Environ 64:118–129
Tan PY, Ismail MR (2015) The effects of urban forms on photosynthetically active radiation and urban greenery in a compact city. Urban Ecosyst 18:937–961
Tan PY, Yeo B, Yip WX, Lua HS (2009) Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in Singapore. Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology, National Parks Board, Government of Singapore. Singapore
Tan CL, Wong NK, Jusuf SK (2014) Effects of vertical greenery on mean radiant temperature in the tropical urban environment. Landsc Urban Plan 127:52–64
Tan CL, Wong NK, Tan PY, Jusuf SK, Chiam ZQ (2015) Impact of plant evapotranspiration rate and shrub albedo on temperature reduction in the tropical outdoor environment. Build Environ 94:206–217
Thiagarajah J, Wong SKM, Richards DR, Friess DA (2015) Historical and contemporary cultural ecosystem service values in the rapidly urbanizing city state of Singapore. Ambio 44:666–677
Velasco E, Roth M, Tan SH, Quak M, Nabarro SD, Norford L (2013) The role of vegetation in the CO2flux from a tropical urban neighbourhood. Atmos Chem Phys 13:10185–10202
Webb R (1998) Urban forestry in Singapore. Arboricultural J 22:271–286
Wong NH, Jusof SK (2010) Study on the microclimate condition along a green pedestrian canyon in Singapore. Archit Sci Rev 53:196–212
Wong NH, Cheong KWD, Yan H, Soh J, Ong CL, Sia A (2002) The effects of rooftop garden on energy consumption of a commercial building in Singapore. Energy Build 35:353–364
Wong NH, Chen Y, Ong CL, Sia A (2003) Investigation of thermal benefits of rooftop garden in the tropical environment. Build Environ 38:261–270
Yaakub SM, Lim RL, Lim WL, Todd PA (2013)The diversity and distribution of seagrass in Singapore. Nat Singapore 6:105–111
Yang W, Wong NH (2013) Field study of human thermal perception in urban parks in Singapore. Int J Sust Build Tech Urban Develop 4:125–133
Yee AT, Ang WF, Teo S, Liew SC, Tan HT (2010) The present extent of mangrove forests in Singapore. Nat Singapore 3:139–145
Yee AT, Corlett RT, Liew SC, Tan HT (2011) The vegetation of Singapore – an updated map. Gardens Bull Singapore 63:205–212
Yuen B, Kong L, Briffett C (1999) Nature andthe Singapore resident. GeoJournal 49:323–331