Oxforduniversity Press,Inc.,Publishes

ANANTHOLOGYOFTEXTSANDCRITICISM

J.D.Stahl

VirginiaTech

TinaL.Hanlon

FerrumCollege

ElizabethLennoxKeyser

HollinsUniversity

NewYorkOxfordOXFORDUNIVERSITY PRESS

2007

OxfordUniversity Press,Inc.,publishes worksthatfurtherOxfordUniversity'sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship,andeducation.

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Crosscurrentsofchildren'sliterature:ananthologyoftexts andcriticismI[editedby)J.D.Stahl,TinaL.Hanlon,ElizabethLennoxKeyser.

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This volumecombinesawidevarietyofprimarytexts withcriticalreadings,examinesthetextswithinthe contextof criticaldebates, exploresthe waysinwhichchildren'sliteraturecombinesinstructionandentertainment,oralandwrittentraditions,wordsand pictures,fantasyandrealism,classicsandadaptations,and perspectivesonchildhoodandadultlife. Itspansawiderangeofliteraryperiods,genres,andculturaltraditions,andexamineshowtheseoverlappingformsandgenres,diverseinfluences,andevolvingvaluesandattitudestowardschildrenandchildhoodhaveshapedthebodyofliteraturewrittenforyoungadultsand children.

Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex.

ISBN-13:978-0-19-513493-3(pbk.:acid-freepaper)

I.Children'sliterature,English.2.Children·sliterature.American.3.Children'sliterature.4.Children'sliterature,English-Historyandcriticism.5.Children·sliterature,American-Historyandcriticism.6.Children'sliterature-History andcriticism. 7.Children-Booksandreading. I.Stahl,J.D.(JohnDaniel)II.Hanlon.Tina L.III.Keyser,ElizabethLennox.1942-

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84 ORALANDWRITTENLITERARYTRADITIONS

childfeelsthatheisnotaloneinhisfantasylife-thatitissharedbythepersonheneedsandlovesmost.Undersuchfavorableconditions,fairytalescommu­nicatetothechildanintuitive,subconsciousunder­standingof hisownnature andofwhathisfuturemay

holdifhedevelopshispotential.Hesensesthatahumanbeingmeanshavingtoacceptdifficultlenges,butalsomeansencountering themostdrous adventures.

MariaTatar(b.i945)

MariaTatarhastranslatedandeditedcollectionsofclassicfairytales,inadditiontowritingbooksofcriticismwithtitlessuchasOffwithTheirHeads!FairyTalesandtheCultureofChildhood(1992)andTheHard FactsoftheGrimms'FairyTales(1987,revisedin2004).Tataris DeanfortheHumanitiesatHarvardandaprofessorofGermaniclanguagesandliteratures.This1992essay(revisedin2005)summarizesthehistoryoffairytalesasstoriesforboth adultsandchildren,therelationshipbetweenoralandwrittenversionsoffolktales,and themultitudeofcriticalapproachesthathave developedsincethe nineteenthcentury.Whileprovidingacri­tiqueofsomeoftheconflictinginterpretationsproposedbybothhistoriansandpsychoanalyti­calcritics,suchasBrunoBettelheim,Tataracknowledgesthatthetaleshavemultiplemeaningsandallowforanendlessvarietyof interpretations.Sheismostinterestedinthewaysin whichtheyreflectthevaluesoftheirplaceandtime,exploring theironiesofhowtheyareused toso­cialize childreneventhoughtheycontainbrutalviolence;harshpunishment;andmanyweak,greedy,orunderhandedcharacterswhoarenotexactly positiverolemodels.

ReadingFairyTales

Thosewho writeaboutfairytalesareoftenaccusedofcastingevilspellsontheworldoffantasyor,worseyet,ofbreakingmagicspells.Weareentitledtosearchfor thehiddenmeaningsofliterarytexts,butfairytalescountassacredstoriesmeanttoenchantratherthantosignify.Analysisatitsbestleadstodemystification,andwhowouldwanttoremovethemagicfromafairytale,especially sincetheremaybenothingleftoncethemagicisbanished?Itiseasytotakeacynicalviewandadoptthepositiontaken bytheKingofHeartsinAliceinWonderland."Ifthere'snomeaninginit,"heasserts,"thatsavesaworldoftrouble,youknow,asweneedn'ttrytofindany"(Carroll94).Mostcritics,however,havefavoredthepositionembracedbytheDuchess:

"Everything'sgotamoral,ifonlyyoucanfindit"(6Thereissomethingtobesaidfortheviewthatf·taleshavenostablemeaning(theylackdefinitivdmulationsanddelightintheabsurd)aswellasforviewthattheyarechargedwithmeaning(theysetoppositionsthatlendthemselves toallegoricalrings).Buttherearenumerousotherpositionsandsibilitiesbetweenthesetwoextremes,andIproposeexplorethembylookingattheevolutionofthesecturalstoriesandtheirinterpretivehistory.

Tolkientellsusthatfairytalesdidnotalwayslongtochildrenandthattheywereretiredonlyretivelyrecentlytothenursery,justas"shabbyorolfashioned furniture is relegated to the play-roo

MariaTatar85

primarilybecausetheadultsdonotwantit"(34).Forcenturies,folktalesservedthecauseofadultentertain­ment.Atfiresidegatherings,aroundthekiln,inthespinningroom,orinworkrooms,talesweretoldtowhileawayalongwintereveningortoshortenthehoursdevotedtodomesticandagriculturalchores.Peasantstoldmanyofthetales,butaristocratsalsofoundthemamusinganddependedonthem,some­timestorelieveboredom,attimestoinducesleep(Ar­ies95-98).Oralstorytelling traditions survivetodayinpocketsofculture-folkraconteursstill entertainwith theirtalesofmystery andmagic,librariansim­provise onSaturdaymorningsforlocalchildren,andurbanstorytellerslikeBrotherBlueinBoston createcurbsideperformancesfortourists and shoppers(Degh 163-64).

Theprecisehistoricaljuncture atwhich folktales,inparticularfairytales,transformedthemselvesfromadult entertainmentintochildren'sliteratureisdiffi­culttoidentify.TheframestoryofGiambattistaBa­sile'sPentamerone(1634-37)describesthe Neapoli­tannarrativesinthatcollectionas"thosetalesthatold womentelltoamusechildren"(1:9).YetthestoriesinthePentameronemusthavebeenaimedprimarilyat adults:itishardtobelievethatatale(Iciteonlyoneofmanypossibleexamples)inwhichaboycallsanoldwoman"ablood-suckingwitch,baby-smotherer,lumpof filth, fart-face"wasreallyintendedasbed­timereading for children. Charles Perrault's Tales ofMotherGoose(Histoires;ou,Contesdutempspasse),publishedin1697,isoftenseen as pivotalwithrespecttothe questionofaudience.AsRobertSamber,itsfirstEnglishtranslator,observed, "notonly Children,butthoseofMaturity"would findinthetales"uncommonPleasureandDelight."Perraultoffered"morals"rightalongwithentertainment,andtheywereoftenframedwithbothadultandchildinmind.Consider,forexample,thedoublelessonof"Bluebeard."Ipresenteach"moral"inabbreviatedform:

Curiosityinspiteofitscharms

Oftenbringswithitmanyregrets...

andfor"thoseofMaturity":

Thetimeofstricthusbandshaspassed,Andnonewilldemandtheimpossible,Evenifplaguedbyjealousy anddoubt.

Hewhisperssweetthingsinhiswife'sear;

Andnomatterwhatcolorhisbeardmaybe,Itisnothardtotellwhoisthemaster.

(Contes128-29;mytrans.)

Thestoryisclearlydirectedattwoaudiences.Thefirstofitstwomoralsteacheschildrenalessonaboutavicethatcanbeanendlesssourceofaggravation toparents.Thesecondisnotreallyamoralbutawitticismde­signedtocapturetheattentionofadultsthroughitspointedengagementwithgenderpolitics.

Perrault'scollectionstraddlesalmostperfectlythelinebetweenadultentertainmentandchildren'slitera­ture.Latercollectorsmayinitiallyhaveconceivedtheirvolumesoffolktales,legends,andfolksongsfortheamusementandedificationofadults,buttheyfoundthemselves,whetherintentionallyornot,in­creasinglyrespondingtoagrowingdemandforchil­dren'sbooks. Fairytales,alwaysnotoriouslyelastic,begantoexpandtheircommitmenttomorallessonsandtomoderate theirenthusiasmforearthyrealism.TheGrimms'Children'sStoriesandHouseholdTales(1812/1815),forexample,beganasascholarlyprojectthatwastoserveasacontributiontothe "historyofpoetry"fortheentirenation,butitturnedintoanan­thologyoftalesdirectedalmostexclusivelyatchil­dren-theGrimmsevencametorefertoavolumethathadoncecontainedbawdymaterialinappropriateforchildren'searsasa"manualofmanners."Thesameholdstrueformanyoftheothergreatnineteenth­centurycollections,alargenumberofwhichwerein­spiredbytheGrimms'pioneeringworkinthefieldoffolklore(Afanasev;Jacobs;Asbj0rnsenandMoe).

Notallfolktalesbecameapartofthecultureofchildhood.Adultsbequeathedtochildrenspecifictypesofstories,primarilymagicaltalesthatplacedhe­roesandheroinesontheroadtohighadventure."HanselandGretel,""LittleRedRidingHood,""JacktheGiantKiller,""Cinderella,"and"TomThumb," whichhaveallbecomeclassicsofchildren'sliterature,pittheweakagainstwitches,ogres,giants,andothermenacingsupernaturalpresences.Nomatterhowhelplessthevictimsseematthestartofthesetales,theynearlyalwayssucceedintriumphingovertheirwickedadversaries.Thatthesetaleswouldprovees­peciallysatisfyingtochildren,whoperceivethem­selveswithouttherequisitestrengthorpowertochallengetheadultworld,isapointwellmadebythepsychologistBrunoBettelheiminhisUsesofEnchantment.

86 ORALANDWRITTENLITERARYTRADITIONS

Manyofthemagicaltalescitedabovehavealsobeenturnedintocautionarytales."LittleRedRidingHood,"forexample,whichstartedoutasabawdyfolktalewithaheroinewhoperformsastripteaseforthewolf,wasturnedbyPerrault,theGrimms,andoth­ersintoasternlessonontheimportanceofobedience.SomeversionsofthetaleshowRedRidingHoodes­capingfromthewolfbytellinghimthatshemustgooutdoors torelieveherself.Whenshetarriestoolong,thewolfwantstoknowexactlywhatsheisupto:"Areyou makingaloadoutthere?Areyoumakingaload?" (Delarue).Asfolktalesmovedfromworkroomsandfiresidegatheringsintothenursery,theygenerallylostmuchoftheirhumor(bothbawdyandscatological)evenastheyretainedandsometimesstrengthenedtheirexpositionofviolence.NeitherPerraultnorthebrothersGrimmshowustheprotagonistof"LittleRedRidingHood"strippingbeforethewolforrelievingherself,butbothworkhardtobuildtensioninthescenethatunfoldsinthebedroomrightbeforethewolfpouncesonhisvictim.Andbothturnthestoryintoacautionarytale,the onewarningaboutthe dangers oflisteningtostrangers(Perrault),theotherabouttheperilsofstraying fromtheproperpath(Grimms).Magicaltales,whichshowtheheroesandheroinesde­featingogresandoutwittinggiants,generallyfollowthepatternofvictimizationandrevenge.Cautionarytales,bycontrast,defeat theprotagonistsbystagingatransgressionanditspunishment(witharescuesceneoftenappendedtosoftentheblow).Thesestories,withtheirstrongdisciplinaryedge,haveacertainundeni­ableappealtoparentswhoseektoteachlessonsas theytellstories(Tatar179-92).

Thetermfairy talehasgainedthewidestcurrencyfordesignatingthetwo(overlapping)typesofstoriesdescribedabove.Althoughthetermismisleading(thereareveryfewfairiesinmostsuchtales)andis usedinanotoriouslyimprecisefashion(todesignateeverythingfromrough-hewntraditionaltalestostyl­izedliterarytexts),Iwilluseitheretoidentifythosefolktalesthathave,bycommonconsensusandcon­vention,becomechildren'sliterature.

Theavenuesforapproachingfairytalesandforun­derstandingthecomplexitiesoftheirseemingsimplic­ityare legion.Thehistoryoffolklorescholarshipbe­gan,however,notwiththeinterpretationoftalesbutwiththetaskofdefining,collecting,andclassifyingthem.Letusstartwiththemostbasicquestion:Just

whatisafolktale?Puristsmightinsistthatthegenreexistsonlyaspartofanoraltraditionpassedonfromonegenerationtothe next-preferablybyruggedpeasantnarratorsseatedaroundthefirehuskingcomandmendingscythesonchillingautumnnights.Inthiscase,theexpertsactuallyknowbetter.Thefolktaleisanotoriouslyelasticgenre,accommodatingallmannerofprosenarratives,bothwrittenandoral.StithThompsonremindsusofthefolktale'smostsalientfeature:"Thetellerofafolktale,"heobserves,"isproudofhisabilitytohandonthatwhichhehasre­ceived"(Folktale4).Ratherthanpridingthemselvesontheircreativegeniusandinventivespirit,folkraconteursbankheavilyontraditionalmaterials(themesworkedandreworkedover aperiodofcen­turies)toshapetheirstories.Forthisreason,thetalestheytellareoftenreferredtoastraditionaltalesortra­ditionalliterature.Recordinganoralnarrativedoesnotnecessarilydepriveitofitsstatusasafolktale.Therecordedversionmayfallflat;itmayberetoldnearlybeyondrecognitionoftheoriginal;anditmayfailtocapturetheinterpretiveelements(facialmovements,gestures,changesinintonation)thatoftenaccompanyanoralnarrative.Stillitremainsafolktale,evenifitmovesfromtherealmoffolkloreintotheareaofwhatRichardDorsonandAlanDundeshavedefinedas"fakelore."

Unliketheliterarytext,thefolktaleknowsnostab1eform.Fornearlyeverytale,wehavehundreds,andinsomecasesthousands,ofextantforms.Eachtextcouldbecalledacorruptversionoftheoriginal(ifiteverexistedatall),butitcouldalsobeseenasoneofaninfinitenumberoflegitimatevariantforms.SoonafterthetermfolktalewascoinedbyWilliamThomsandthefieldbecameestablishedasascholarlydisci­pline,folkloristssetthemselvesthetaskofcollectingandclassifyingthevastarrayofmaterialsthatconsti­tutedtheirdomain.TheTypesoftheFolktale(Ver­zeichnisderMiirchentypen),alandmarkstudyof1910bytheFinnishscholarAnttiAame,setupaclassifica­tionsystemoftaletypesthat,despite criticismfromvariousquarters,todaystillprovidesthebasicpointofreferenceforthestudyoffolktales.InitsfinalformAame'scatalog,whichwastranslatedandenlargedbyThompson,contains2,499taletypesdividedintofivecategories:animaltales,ordinaryfolktales,jokesandanecdotes,formulatales,andunclassifiedtales. Foreachtype,AarneandThompsonprovideasummaryof

MariaTatar87

thetale,abreakdownofthechiefmotifs(thesmallestpossiblenarrativeunits)andbibliographicalrefer­ences.Thetale-typeindexissupplementedbyThomp­son'sMotif-IndexofFolk-Literature,asix-volumeref­erenceworkclassifyingthebasicelementsthatconstitutetheplotsoftraditionalliteraturefromaroundtheworld.

TheworkofAarneandThompsonlaidthefounda­tionforfolktalescholarshipandmadecleartheimpor­tanceofcomparativeanalysis.Henceforthitwouldbeimpossible--0ratleastmethodologicallyunsound­tostudyataleinisolation.Itmay have seemedaston­ishingthatAameandThompsoncouldreducethecountlessnumbersofextantfolktalestoonly2,499taletypes,butbycontrastwiththecalculationsoftheirRussiancolleagueVladimirPropp,thatnumberseemeddownrightastronomical.InTheMorphologyoftheFolktale,publishedin1928,Proppdeclaredthat"allfairy talesareofonetypeinregardtotheirstruc­ture."Ratherthanclassifytalesbythemes(a"danger-

.ous"mistakemadebyAarne),theRussianfolkloristpreferredtoshowhowthebuildingblocks(heidenti­fiesthirty-one-functionsandsevenspheresofaction)ofallfairytalesremainconstantandhelpusunder­standthepredictabilityoffairy-taleplots.

Inrecentyears,folkloristshaveheededthecallofAlanDundesnottoabdicatetheimportantworkofanalysistothoseunschooledintheirdiscipline("StudyofFolklore").Theytoohavebeguntopro­ducereadingsthat,alongwiththoseofanthropolo­gists,feminists,theologians,psychologists,historians,literarycritics,andothers,haveenrichedanddeep­enedourunderstandingofthetales.Dundes himself,anavowedFreudian,hasurgedhiscolleaguestofocusonthefamilyconflictsdramatizedinfairytales("Psy­ choanalyticStudyofFolklore").Incest,childaban­donment,sexualjealousy,siblingrivalry,mutilation,murder,andcannibalism:thesearejustafewofthepreferredthemesoffairytales.Inmanyinstances,es­ peciallywhenstudyingunbowdlerizedtales,itmakesnosensetosearchforlatentmeanings,becausethetalesinfactconcealsolittle.Theyopenlydramatizethekindsofeventsthatare ordinarilysuppressedinchildren'sliterature:eroticintrigue,physicalsuffer­ing,violent deaths,andgrimactsofrevenge.Freud's descriptionofmythas"psychologyprojectedontotheexternalworld"(6:258)couldbesaidtoholdtrueforfolktalesaswell.Fairytales,inparticular,giveusex-

aggeratedanddistorted(onemightevensayuncen­sored)formsofinternalconflictsplayedoutinthecontextoffamilylife.

Althoughpsychoanalysisremainsoneofthebestopticswehaveforlookingatthedynamicsoffamilylifeinfairytales,psychoanalyticcriticismseemstoraisearedflagwhereveritgoes-notentirelywithoutreason.Inthenameofpsychoanalysis,redcapshavebeenturnedintosymbolsofmenstruation,housesmadeofgingerbreadintothebodiesofmothers,andgoldeneggsintoanalideasofpossession.Ourfaithinpsychoanalyticreadingoffairytalesisquickly under­minedoncewebegincomparingtheinterpretationsanddiscoverhowdifferenttheyare,evenwhentheyhaveallemergedfromthesameschool.Itisnotonlythelargercontoursofthetale'splotthatgeneratedis­agreement,buteventhefinepointsofdetail.Letuslookatthecaseofthedwarfsin"SnowWhite."ForBettelheim,thesesevenhardworkingfellowsrepre­sentthedaysoftheweek,andalsothesevenmetals.Inaddition,theselittlemen,"withtheirstuntedbodiesandtheirminingoccupation-theyskillfullypenetrateintodarkholes-allsuggestphallicconnotations"(210).Bettelheim'sobviousdiscomfortwiththesecreatures (sincehecannotfindonesatisfactoryexpla­nationfortheirexistence,hereachesforseveral)willbesharedbyanyonewhoreviewsvariousassessmentsofthedwarfs'roleinthetale.Onecriticseesthesevenmenassiblingsoftheheroine,anotherfindsthattheyrepresentSnowWhite'sunconsciousmind,whileathirdviewsthemashomosexuals whohavesetuphousekeeping(Spork176-78).Whenweturntoan­otheranalysisanddiscoverthatthedwarfssymbolizeSnowWhite'sgenitals,itbecomesdifficultnottoflinchindisbelief(Gmelin41).

Whileeventhemostastutepsychoanalyticcriticscangowrongwhenitcomestodetails,lessrestrainedinterpretersareperfectlycapableof doingviolencetoan entiretext.Considerthe followingrecentobserva­tionson"Rumpelstiltskin":

Themiller'sboastingofhisdaughter'sgold-spinningabilityconveysaswellasconcealsthethreatofason'spowerfulrivalrytowardhisfather(theKing).Thus,onapreoedipallevelofunderstanding,themillercedeshisgreatpower(gold-feces)tohisfather,amanic-restitutivedefenseconveyedverballybyhisboastfulness.Onanoedipallevelofunderstanding,hetherebyalsodenieshisincestuouswishtoimpreg-

88 ORALANDWRITTENLITERARYTRADITIONS

natehisowndaughter,tohaveababybyher.Alsoin­herentinhisofferaretheelementsofacovertmenage-a-trois,asharingofonefemalebetweentwomaleswhich,togetherwiththeanalaspectsofthemiller'soffer,pointtowardhisself-abnegatoryhomo­sexualdesiretowardhisKing-father.

(RinsleyandBergmann7)

WhenwefurtherhearthatRumpelstiltskin'sstompingis"symbolicofmasturbation"andlearnthathisgold­spinningsuggests"achild playingwithhisownfeces,amasturbatoryprecursor,"itbecomesdifficulttosus­penddisbelief.Thesearethekindsofuncontrolledin­terpretationsthatgivepsychoanalyticcriticismofbothfolktales andliterary textsabad name.

Thesedocumentedcases ofoverinterpretationormisinterpretationwouldbeenoughtodiscouragemostpeoplefromadoptingpsychoanalysisasatoolforana­lyzingfairytales.Moreserious,however,aretheun­documentedcasesofmisguidedpsychoanalyticdis­course.Thesevirtuallyallbegininthesameway:"Psychoanalyticcriticswouldsay...."Thatopeningphrase,oravariantofit,isfollowedbyapreposterousstatementequatingonecharacter,motif,orobjectinatalewithananatomicalpartorapsychoanalyticcon­cept.Theveryringofthephrase"psychoanalyticcrit­icswouldsay"isnow anegativeone,andfewfailtocringeinanticipationofthefar-fetchedstatementsthatinevitablyfollow.Twoexamplesmustsuffice.Inananalysisof"TheJuniperTree,"LutzRohrichobservesthat"psychoanalyticcriticswouldseeinthemotifofdismembermentasymbolofcastrationorcastrationanxiety"(194;mytrans.).ThechildpsychologistCarl­HeinzMalletnotes,withregardtothemaleheroof"TheJuniperTree,"that"psychoanalyticcriticswouldimmediatelyseetheboyasthephallusofthehusband" (216).Thesehypotheticalpsychoanalyticcriticsleadastrange,ghostlydouble lifeinthe literatureonfairytales:theyserveasbothstrawmenandaswhippingboysforothercritics.Anyonewho acceptsthelabel"psychoanalyticcritic"hastotakeontheburdenofalltheactualerrors made bysuchcriticsalongwithallthepotentialmistakesattributedtothem.

Psychoanalyticcriticscanbedogmatic;theycanmisreadthedetailsofatext;andtheycanevengetan entiretextwrong.Buttheirerrorsarenograverthan thosefoundinsociohistoricalreadings,infeministin­terpretations,andeveninfolkloristicanalyses.Atthesametime,psychoanalysiscanputusontherighttrack

forunderstandinganumberofprominentfairytalethemes.Instoriesrangingfrom"TheJuniperTree"through'TomThumb"to"SleepingBeauty,"forex­ample,cannibalismfiguresasasignificantmotif.Awomanchopsupthecorpseofherstepsonandserveshimuptoherhusbandinastew;anogrerelishesthethoughtofeatingsevenbrothersfordinner;awomandevelopsanappetiteforhergrandchildren.Itwouldnotbeterriblyusefulinanyofthesecasestoconsulthandbooksontheactualpracticeofcannibalism.Here,psychoanalysis,withitsattempttoinvestigatesuchmattersasthe fearofbeingdevouredand oralfix­ation,canbefar moreusefulthanthestudyofhistori­callydocumentedincidentsofcannibalism(Destinsducannibalisme; Fenichal).

Becausethefairytaleprivilegesdescriptionsoffamilylife,itlendsitselfeminentlywelltopsycho­analysis.Butfairytalesalsooperatelikemagnets,pickingupbitsandpiecesofeverydayrealitysothattheycometobelitteredwithculturaldebris.AsItaloCalvinohasputit,"Thefolktale,regardlessofitsori­gin,tendstoabsorbsomethingoftheplacewhereitisnarrated-alandscape,acustom,amoraloutlook,orelsemerelyaveryfaintaccentorflavor ofthelocality"(xxi).InanItalianversionof"TheThreeSpinners."forexample,theheroinedownsendlessamountsoflasagnainordertotaketheedgeoffhernervousnessaboutspinningendlessquantitiesofflax.Suchcultur'.allydetermineddetailscanbefoundinanyfolkloricitem,thoughitisnotalwaysaseasyasinthiscasetoassignaplacetothem.

Tostatethatfairytalesgiveuspsychologicaldramasetinculturallydeterminedscenesistomakeanal­mosttrivialpoint.Butevenourbestinterpretersoffairytaleshave awayofchoosing upsidesinthede­bateoverthedegreetowhichfairytalesreflectpsy­chicorculturalrealities.Wehaveseenhowpsychoan­alyticcriticscantaketalesandtreatthemasiftheywere"flattenedout,likepatientsonacouch,inatime­lesscontemporaneity"(Darnton13).Buthistoriansslidewith easetotheoppositeextremewhentheyar­gue,asEugenWeberdoes,thatthesetalesmaybeabout"realpeople"andthen proceedtotreattheselit­erarytalesasiftheywerehistoricaldocuments(96).Tobesure,mosthistorianstakeamoremeasuredviewandstudyfairytalesinsearchofcluesaboutthefactsofeverydaylifeinpastagesandaboutthementaliteofaspecificculture.Butevenifoneassumesthathistory

MariaTatar289

was"immobile"atthevillagelevelduringtheageinwhichthesetalesflourishedinoralformandjustbe­foretheywererecordedinthelargecollectionsofthenineteenthcentury,itbecomesdifficulttosortoutfactfrom fantasyandtodetermineexactlywhichdetailscanbeseenastimelessuniversalsandwhichcanbereadasspecifictoa culture.

Thebattlebetweenpsychoanalysisandhistory on theterrainoffolkloreshouldnotdivertourattentioncompletelyfromvariousskirmishesoflesscentralmethodologicalimportance.Itisastonishingtoob­servehowscholarsfromvirtuallyeverydisciplineandofeverymethodologicalpersuasionhaveacontribu­tiontomakewhenitcomestofairytales."LittleRedRidingHood"hasbeenreadbyhistoriansasarealistictextbasedonaccountsofwerewolvesattackinganddevouringchildren.Psychiatristshavefoundinthestoryanexpositionof"humanpassions,oralgreedi­ness,aggression,andpubertaldesires"(Bettelheim182).Buttherearealsostudiesofthetalebylegalex-

,perts(whoofferdisquisitionsonthewolf'spunish­ment)andbysolarmythologists(wholikenLittleRedRidingHoodtothesun,whichisengulfedbydarknessattheendofitsjourney).Ideologuesofthe ThirdReichhailedRedRidingHoodasasymboloftheGer­manpeople,terrorizedbutfinallyliberatedfromtheclutchesofaJewishwolf,andfeministshavefoundinthestoryaparableofrapethatteachesyoungwomenaboutferociousmalebeasts.Oncewedecidetomovefromaliteralreadingtoasymbolicinterpretation,weperformanoperationthatfreesustosubstitutevirtu­allyanypowerperceivedaspredatoryforthewolfandanyentityperceivedasinnocentforRedRidingHood.Eachfairytaletexthasacertainpolysemicqualitytoit,renderingitcapableofgeneratinganalmostendlessnumberofinterpretations(Turner41-42).

ReadingsofPerrault's"Bluebeard"tellussome­thingaboutthehazardsofmovingtooswiftlyfromtheliteraltothesymbolicplane.WhenthekeythatBlue­beard'swifeusedtoopenthedoorforbiddentoherbe­comesstainedwiththebloodofBluebeard'sdeadwives,itisnotBluebeardwhocomesunderfireasaserialmurderer,buthiswifeasanadulteress.Thebloodiedkeyhasbeenreadasasignof"maritalinfi­delity";itmarkstheheroine's"irreversiblelossofhervirginity";itstandsasasignof"deftoration."Foronecritic, theforbiddenchamberis"clearlythevaginalarea,"whilethebloodykeyisa"symbolofthelossof

chastity"(Dundes,"PsychoanalyticStudyoftheGrimms'Tales"56).Ifonerecallsthatthebloodychamberisstrewn withthecorpsesofBluebeard'spre­viouswives,thisreadingbecomesmorethanodd.Anditisdifficulttounderstandexactlywhytheheroine's openingofadoorshouldbeequatedwithsexualbe­trayal(Tatar156-70).

Theproperinterpretationoffairytalesremainsahotlydebatedsubject.Justascontroversialhasbeenthequestionofthepedagogicalvalueofthesetales.Bettelheim'sclaimthatlisteningtofairytalescanpro­videchildrenwithpowerfultherapeuticbenefitshasbeenchallengedbymanycritics,butthathasnotpre­venteditfrombecomingdogmainmanycircles.The graphicdescriptionsofcruelandunusualpunishmentsinmanyfairy-taleanthologiesmayinfactnotprovidechildrenwiththebestpossiblenighttimefare.InItal­iantales,witchesareregularlycoatedwithpitchandburnedtodeath;Germantalesshowthembeingrolleddownhillsinbarrelsstuddedwithnails;inRussiantalestheyfreezetodeath.Fairy-taleheroesandhero­inesalsodonotalwaysserveasidealmodelsforchil­dren.Whenfacedwithacrisis,theytypicallyrespondbysittingdownandhavingagoodcry.Ratherthanrely ontheirownresources,theyoftendependonmagicalmeansandsupernaturalhelperstogaintheirends.Lying,cheating,andstealingalsobecomeper­fectlyacceptable,solongassuchpracticesenablethemto movefurtherdowntheroadtowealthandso­cialpromotionthroughagoodmarriage.

JackZipeshasarguedpersuasivelythatfairytalesplayaninfluentialroleinsocializingchildren.Mostofthetalecollectionscanonizedbyourculture, however,failhistestoftherightvalues.Perrault,forexample,showsuswomenwhodemonstrate"reserveandpa­tience,"whoremainpassiveuntil"therightmancomesalong."Forthemalefiguresalone,Perraultre­serves"remarkableminds,courage,anddeft man­ners."The"idealtypes"fashionedbyPerraultwereusedtoreinforce"thestandardsofthecivilizingpro­cesssetbyupper-classFrenchsociety"(25-26).Zipesconcedesthat"itwouldbefoolishtorejecttheentireclassicalcanonassociallyuseless oraestheticallyout­moded"andadvocatesreappropriationofthetalesbymoreliberalandenlightenedminds.Hisconcernsaresharedbyfeministcriticsinparticular,forsomanyfairy-taleheroinessuffersilentlyuntilreleasedfrom ahumblestatebyamalefigure(Stone;Bottigheimer).

90 ORALANDWRITTENLITERARYTRADITIONS

Heroesarenotalwaysascourageousanddashingassomewouldhaveusbelieve-buttheygenerallytakeamoreactiverolethantheirfemalecounterpartsinshapingtheirdestinies.

Fairytaleshaveleftamarkonnearlyeverychild­hood.Scholarsinpursuitoftheirdeepermeanings andtheirhiddenmessagesmayriskbreakingtheirmagicspell,buttheyalsohelpusunderstandsomethingaboutthevaluesandassumptionsembeddedinastory.Thereisnothingsacredaboutanyspecificfairytale.Eachisofvalueasadocumenttruetoitstimeandplace.Butsincewemaynotnecessarilywantachildto hearhowtheGrimms'wickedqueendemandsSnowWhite'slungsandliverortowitnessthethrillthat WaltDisney'sSnowWhitegetsfromhousekeep­ing,thereisnothingwrongwithpreservingtheoldversionsashistoricaldocumentsandcreatingnewonesfortheentertainmentofchildren.Keepingthestorytellingtraditionaliverequireschangesinwordsandvariations indetail.

Childrenmayhaveappropriatedfairytales,turningthechildhoodoffictionintothefictionofchildhood,buttheydidnotleaveadultsentirelyempty-handed.GeorgeDasent,arenownedscholarofOldNorse,con­gratulatedthebrothersGrimminparticularonelevat­ing"whathadcometobelookedonasmerenurseryfictionsandoldwives'fables-toastudyfitfortheen­ergiesofgrownmen,andtoallthedignityofascience"(xix).Now,onehundredyearsaftertheseobservations,theneedtolegitimizethestudyoffairytalesisnolongersourgent.Ithasbecomebothanartandasci­ence-foryoungandforold,formaleandforfemale.

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JohnLangstaff(1920-2005)

JohnLangstaff,likemanyauthorsforchildren,workedwithbothoralandwrittenmedia.Muchofhislongcareerasamusician,storyteller,andwriter ofchildren'sbooksinvolvedadaptingand performingtraditionalliterature.HispicturebookFrogWentA-Courtin',illustratedbyFeodorRojankovsky,wontheCaldecottMedalin1956.In1957,LangstaffcreatedaprogramcalledTheRevels,acombinationofdrama,song,anddanceintendedtoprovideAmericanchil­drenwithcommunalritualscelebratingtheseasons.HeeventuallybecamedirectorofRevels,a Massachusettscompanythatstillproducesthesepopularprogramseveryyearinvariousloca­tions."TheOralTradition:Alive,Alive-oh"waspublishedina1987book,InnocenceExpe­rience,basedonprogramsatSimmonsCollegeCenterfortheStudyofChildren'sLiterature,whereLangstaffservedasafacultymemberinthe1970sand1980s.Theessayoffersinterest­inginsightsonrelationsbetweenoraltraditionsandwrittenliteratureattheendofthetwentiethcentury,withenthusiasticrecognitionofthevigorousoraltraditionthatisaliveamongAmeri­canchildren withawidevarietyofculturalbackgrounds.TheexamplesofstreetrhymesthatLangstaffandotherscollectedfromcitychildrencomplementtheselectionsofnurseryrhymesandfolksongsreprintedinthissection,andtheotherexamplesinthisvolumeofspin-offsandsatiresbasedonolderverses.