Greek Drama: out of Ritual

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Antigone

Introductory Material

Greek Drama: Out of Ritual

by David Adams Leeming

You probably never thought of church services or rituals as being forms of drama, but they are. Greek drama grew out of ancient religious rituals honoring Dionysos (die uh nie sus), the god of wine and fertility. During these old celebrations, worshipers would dance around the altar of the god of wine and ecstasy, singing hymns to the wild, passionate accompaniment of the flute.

At some point during the sixth century B.C., these Dionysian celebrations became an annual festival held in Athens at a large outdoor amphitheater. Eventually, the dancing choruses of worshipers began competing for prizes (a bull or a goat). Tradition has it that a man named Thespis transformed these hymns into songs that still honored Dionysos but also told the story of a famous hero or even another god. Then Thespis added another innovation: One of the chorus members would step away from the others to play the part of that hero or god. This individual actor wore a mask and entered into a dialogue with the chorus. Drama as we know it was born when the playwright Aeschylus (es ki lus) added a second individual actor to the performance—an innovation that instantly created the possibility of conflict. (Thespis has been immortalized in our word thespian, which refers to an actor or actress.)

By the end of the fifth century B.C., this annual festival, called the Dionysia, had become a four-day extravaganza. Public business was suspended; prisoners were released on bail. As many as fourteen thousand spectators gathered in the open-air Theater of Dionysos to watch as playwrights chosen by the city magistrates competed for prizes in tragedy and comedy. After an opening day of traditional choral hymns, three dramatists in each category presented their plays over the next three days. Each morning, one of the playwrights presented three tragedies and a satyr (saytur) play, and that afternoon, another playwright presented a comedy. The tragedies were serious treatments of religious and mythic questions. The satyr plays (named for the lecherous wood demons, or satyrs, who formed the chorus) presented comic and even lewd treatments of the same themes.

The Theater of Dionysos: Like a Football Stadium

The Theater of Dionysos looked like a semicircular football stadium. The seats were carved out of stone on a hillside; at the bottom was a performance area divided into two parts. In the front was a rounded place called the orchestra, a fairly large space where the chorus sang and danced around the remnant of an altar. Behind the orchestra was a platform where the actors spoke their lines from behind huge masks. These masks had exaggerated mouthpieces that amplified the actors’ voices—an ancient solution to the problem resolved today by microphones. Many masks were stylized into familiar character types that were easily recognized by the audience. All the actors were men, and the choruses were well-trained boys. By switching masks, each actor could play several roles.

A few days before the festival of Dionysos began, that year’s competing playwrights, choruses, and actors would march in a procession through the city of Athens. A herald would announce the titles of the competing plays, and masked dancers would parade through the streets, carrying a statue of Dionysos.

In ancient Greece, religion and dramatic “entertainment” were one and the same thing. To visualize a modern equivalent, imagine New York City’s Broadway theaters as the center of a four-day religious festival in which everyone in the city took part.

A Tragic Family: The House of Thebes

The basic plot of Antigone is part of a long mythic story that was as familiar to Athenian audiences as stories about George Washington or Abraham Lincoln are to us. For Greek audiences watching Antigone, suspense did not come from their anxiety about what would happen next, because they already knew the story. Suspense came from their knowledge of things the characters on stage did not know. As these characters spoke in their ignorance, the audience pitied them and wanted to warn them of their impending doom.

The following story is the myth the Athenians knew and the one that we must also know if we are to understand Antigone.

The Story of Oedipus

King Laios (lie us) and Queen Jocasta of Thebes (Thebz) learned from an oracle that their newborn son would kill his father and marry his mother. Horrified by this prediction, they gave their baby to a shepherd with orders to leave the infant to die on a lonely mountainside with his ankles pinned together. But the shepherd took pity on the baby. Instead of abandoning him, he gave him to a Corinthian shepherd, who in turn gave the baby to the childless king and queen of Corinth. They named him Oedipus (ed i pus), which means “swollen foot” or “club foot,” and raised him as their son.

When Oedipus was a young man, he learned of the oracle’s prophecy. Believing the king and queen of Corinth to be his real parents, he ran away from home in horror. In the course of his lonely wanderings, he encountered an arrogant old man who tried to run him off the road with his chariot. Because honor was at stake, the two men fought, and Oedipus killed the stranger. Thinking no more of the incident—such occurrences were probably common on the roads in those days—Oedipus continued on his journey to the city of Thebes.

Meeting the Monster Sphinx

At the outskirts of the city, he encountered the Sphinx, a terrible monster with the wings of an eagle, the body of a lion, and the breasts and face of a woman. This Sphinx had been menacing Thebes by ambushing travelers going to the city and challenging them to answer a riddle. If they answered it correctly, they proceeded on their way; if not, the Sphinx devoured them. The city was in a state of siege: No one wanted to enter it for fear of the monster. Famine was near at hand. The Sphinx’s riddle went like this: “What creature goes on four legs in the morning, two legs in the afternoon, and three legs in the evening?”

Oedipus immediately guessed that the answer to the riddle was “man,” who crawls on all fours as an infant, walks on two legs as an adult, and leans on a cane in old age. Upon hearing Oedipus’s answer, the defeated Sphinx leaped into the sea. Thebes was saved.

A Hero’s Welcome in Thebes

When Oedipus arrived in Thebes, the city where (unknown to him) he had been born, the people welcomed him as their savior. Since Laios, their king, had recently been killed, the Thebans offered Oedipus their throne and the widowed queen, Jocasta, as his bride. So Oedipus became king of Thebes, married Jocasta, and had four children with her: two sons, Polyneices (paul ee nie seez) and Eteocles (ee tee uh kleez); and two daughters, Antigone (an tig uh nee) and Ismene (is men ee).

All went well for many years until a plague struck Thebes. People, crops, and animals were dying. Desperate to learn the cause, Oedipus sent Jocasta’s brother, Creon, to consult the great oracle at Delphi.

A Horrible Discovery

The oracle warned that the plague would not end until Thebes had punished the murderer of King Laios, who lived among them undetected. Oedipus vowed to save Thebes once again by finding this murderer. After questioning several people, including the blind prophet Teiresias (tie ree see us), he discovered that the man he had killed on the road years before was none other than King Laios. Furthermore, he learned that he was not the son of the king and queen of Corinth, but rather the son of Laios and Jocasta. Thus Oedipus had in fact fulfilled the oracle—he had killed his father and married his mother. When Oedipus and Jocasta discovered this horrible truth, she killed herself and he gouged out his eyes to punish himself for having been blind to the truth.

After these disasters, Creon took over as regent (acting ruler) of Thebes, and after several years he decided to exile Oedipus. Accompanied only by his daughter Antigone (in some versions of the myth, also by Ismene), Oedipus wandered the countryside as a beggar until he reached the sanctuary of Colonus, where he died.

God’s Laws or Man’s?

Antigone returned to Thebes, where her two brothers had agreed to rule in alternate years. Eteocles’ turn came first, but when it ended, he refused to give up his throne to Polyneices. Polyneices fled to the city of Argos, where he raised an army and attacked the seven gates of Thebes. The Thebans repulsed each assault, but in the course of battle, Eteocles and Polyneices killed each other.

Creon then became king of Thebes and gave Eteocles, his ally, a hero’s burial. Creon considered Polyneices a traitor, so he decreed that his body be left unburied, to rot in the sun outside the city gates. To the Greeks, this was a terrible punishment: Their holiest laws demanded that certain burial rites be performed, or else the soul of the dead person would be condemned to eternal unrest. This is the basis of Creon’s conflict with the strongwilled Antigone. As you will see, she believes that God’s laws must be obeyed, whatever the consequences.

Background Information

I. Social and Political—Athens 5th century BC.

Antigone was written by Sophocles, the most well-known of all the Greek dramatists. In Athens, this was a time of great achievements in all forms of art. The people, energetic and busy, also had a strong sense of patriotism. The Athenian government at that time was an exclusive democracy run by elected officials in the form of an open assembly. Participation in this democracy, however, was limited to only about ten percent of the population; women, slaves, and other “non-citizens” were excluded. Sophocles, although a member of the ruling class, was aware of the social inequalities in society. Plays repeatedly warned the Greeks of the destruction that would come to them as a result of their prejudices and the impoverished conditions that existed for many.

II. Religious Ideas

The Greeks worshipped many gods. These gods had human attributes. In addition to their gods, the Greeks believed in Fate as a divine force, even stronger than the gods. Although people could not know their fate, the Greeks used omens, dreams, oracles, and soothsayers to try to learn the will of the gods. The Greeks felt the gods became angry with people who were guilty of pride or any other kind of excess. People who knew their limitations and lived moderately were living correctly. Although the Greeks focused on man in everyday life, they did write of the immortality of a soul in Hades. One important religious duty was the burial of dead relatives. In many plays this duty becomes a crucial point.

III. Origins of Greek Drama

To celebrate their gods, the Greeks held many religious festivals. During these festivals, drama was an important part of the religious ritual. All Athenian citizens and non-citizens attended the religious celebrations and theatrical performances to honor the god Dionysus, who suffered, died, and was resurrected. The early tragedies are in this cycle of despair followed by the ecstasy of enlightenment. These plays were choral lyrics with one actor taking several roles and conversing with the leader of the chorus between performances of the chorus. In time, tragedies were based on myths with choral odes alternating with dialogue. These plays taught a moral lesson.

Tragedy:The Greek tragedy focuses on the tragic hero. This tragic hero is a great man who has one tragic flaw, which brings about his downfall. As the hero accepts the consequences of his errors, he teaches the audience some truth of life. The people watching feel a catharsis, a heightening of emotions, as they watch the hero suffer, and they are able to identify with his problems. In the end, the audience feels purged, drained of its emotions, and able to better understand life.

The first theater was on the slopes of the Acropolis. People sat in the open air on benches which surrounded the stage on three sides. Because it was a religious ceremony, the performance was dignified and serious. People expected to be awakened to truth and experience a discussion on life’s most serious issues.

IV. Stage Conventions of the Greek Theater

1. Use of dramatic irony—Since the audience was familiar with the plots that had been taken from well-known myths, the audience always had more information about the action than the characters on stage did.
2. The plays were acted in the daytime without lights or curtains, and the Greeks used few sets or props.
3. All actors were male. They wore masks, wigs, and high boots, all of which added to the formality.
4. The plays were written in poetic verse rather than prose.
5. To increase dramatic intensity, the plays observed the “three unities.”

a. unity of time—all the action of the play took place within a 24 hour period. Dialogue provided background information.

b. unity of place—action was limited to one setting; one unchanged scene was used.

c. unity of subject—the focus was on the main character. There were no sub-plots.

1. Messengers were used to tell the audience about what happened offstage. Because of the religious intent and dignified style, no violence was shown on stage. The messengers ran on stage and spoke to the audience of any deaths or killings.
2. An essential element of Greek drama involved the use of the chorusin the following manner:

a. Fifteen to twenty men represented the citizens.

b. They were always on stage and they frequently sang and danced.

c. They always had a leader who carried on a dialogue with the main characters or with the rest of the chorus.

The function of the chorus was to:

• set the tone
• give essential background information
• recall events of the past
• interpret and summarize events
• ask questions and at times give opinions
• give advice, if asked
• stay objective in the sense that it did not disagree with the leading character
• act like a jury of elders or wise men who would listen to the evidence in the play and reach a moralistic conclusion at the end

Cast of Characters

Creon—Recently made King of Thebes, he is the uncle to his sister’s children: Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene

Eteocles—He and his brother shared the throne after his father left Thebes in shame. He and Creon fought against Polynices and his foreign troops.

Polynices—After both sons were killed, Creon declared Eteocles a hero and Polynices a traitor.

Antigone—Niece of Creon and sister to the two boys; she is very upset at Creon’s refusal to give a proper burial to both boys.

Ismene—Sister of Antigone and the two boys

Haemon—Son of Creon and intended husband of Antigone

Queen Eurydice—Haemon’s mother

Chorus Leader—Usually provides opportunity for dialogue within the chorus

Tiresias—The blind soothsayer who is able to look into the future

The boy—He leads Tiresias around and acts as his eyes

A Soldier

A Messenger

A Captain

A battlefield outside the city gates of Thebes.

CHORUS: After poor, blind King Oedipus left our city in shame, his two sons fought to see who would be the new King. Polynices, who had fled the city in fear of his life, raised an army among our enemies. He then returned and attacked the city. It was his plan to defeat his brother Eteocles and become, himself, ruler of Thebes. But Eteocles with the help of his uncle Creon raised a large army to defend the city. When the two armies clashed, the tide of battle went back and forth for several days. Finally, the two brothers, Eteocles and Polynices, met on the field of battle to decide the issue once and for all. In a fight that lasted many hours the attackers were finally driven off, but both brothers lay dead on the battlefield.

Creon, next in line for the throne, was proclaimed the new King of Thebes by the city elders. In this fashion the elders hoped to bring happiness and peace to our long suffering city. But wait, here comes our worthy King now.

All hail the new King! Hail Creon! May your rule be just and long!

SCENE 1

Enter Creon

CREON: Thank you, my people. How long I will rule is in the hands of the gods, but justice is in my hands.

CHORUS: Well said, oh noble Lord!

CREON: Therefore, as my first official act, I shall reward the worthy and punish the unworthy. Captain, see that the noble Eteocles, the defender of our city, is buried with great honors. For his brother, the traitorous Polynices, however, leave his body where it lies.