Chapter 27: World War I1

Chapter 27: World War I (1914-1918)

Causes

1)No recent major wars

  • The last one was in the 1850s (The Crimean War)
  • War was romanticized  people forgot what it was like

2)The Franco-Prussian War

  • Bismarck provoked this war because he wanted to get the southern German states
  • Prussia won
  • Imposed a harsh treaty on France

1) Made them pay 4 billion francs for the war

2) Took away Alsace and Lorraine

  • This all created anger in France  wanted revenge
  • Prussia-Germany, traditionally the weakest of the Great Powers, had become the most powerful nation in Europe with Bismarck’s help

3)Tangled Alliances

  • German leaders (Wilhelm I and Bismarck) were afraid of French retaliation
  • So thewanted to keepFrance isolated

How?

-By forming alliances with other countries to protect Germany and to prevent France from forming military alliances and gaining help

  • Bismarck was also concerned with the threat to peace in the east, the tension between Russia and Austria-Hungary

-these two enormous multinational empires had many conflicting interests

-they both wanted influence over the Balkans

-there was a real threat that Germany might be dragged into a great war between the 2 rival empires

  • Three Emperor’s League(1873)= Russia + Germany + Austria-Hungary

-Bismarck formed this alliance against radical movements to prevent conflict between Russia and Austria-Hungary and to isolate a hostile France

-problem: this was unstable because of tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary

-When Russia’s victories in the Ottoman empire threatened the balance of Austrian and Russian interest in the Middle East, Bismarck played peacemaker

-But Russian nationalists were angry about his balancing efforts at the Berlin Conference  he sided with Austria-Hungary

-Germany favored Austria-Hungary and they concluded a defensive military alliance with Austria against Russia

-It eventually fell apart Russia left, but then Italy joined

-There were different attempts to reorganize it

-In 1881, he tricked both Austria-Hungary and Russia into a secret alliance with Germany in an effort to neutralize tensions

-But it fell apart in 1887 when Russia dropped out because of new tensions in the Balkans

-After Russia dropped out, he still kept good relations with Russia through the Russian Germany Reinsurance Treaty, by which both states promised neutrality if the other was attacked

Problem for Germany: when things fell apart, France had to chance to make alliances

  • Germany made sure to maintain good relations with Britain and Italy, while encouraging France in Africa, but keeping France isolated in Europe
  • Bismarck’s accomplishments in foreign policy after 1871 were great. He maintained German leadership in international affairs.
  • Germany and Britain

-After 1891, Britain was the only Great power with no permanent allies

-Many Germans and some British felt that a “natural alliance” united the advanced, racially related Germanic and Anglo-Saxon peoples

-However the generally good relations that had prevailed between Prussia and Britain ever since the mid-18th century gave way to a bitter Anglo-German rivalry

-Commercial rivalry increased between the two in the 1890s

-Germany’s pursuit of world power unsettled the British

-Above all, Wilhelm II’s decision to expand its navy posed a challenge to Britain’s long-standing naval supremacy

-This decision coincided with the Boer War between the British and the Dutch, when many German writers made Britain and their concentration camps look really bad. This created British resentment against Germany.

  • Britain improved its often strained relations with the United States, and in 1902 concluded a formal alliance with Japan
  • In 1904, Britain formed an alliance with France, because France’s Delcasse wanted better relations with Britain so they would support French plans to dominate Morocco. In return, France would accept British rule in Egypt.

-This alliance settled all outstanding colonial disputes between Britain and France

  • Germany decided to test the strength of this alliance, so they insisted on an international conference on the whole Moroccan question

-But Germany’s crude bullying forced France and Britain closer together, and the conference left Germany empty-handed and isolated

  • The result of the Moroccan crisis was something of a diplomatic revolution

-Britain, France, Russia, and even the United States began to see Germany as a potential threat who might seek to dominate over all of Europe

-At the same time, German leaders began to see sinister plots to “encircle” Germany and block its development as a world power

-That’s why Wilhelm called Edward the “Encircler”

-Then Russia, after its disastrous war with Japan and the revolution of 1905, agreed to settle its quarrels with Britain

  • Germany’s decision to add a large fleet of battleships to its navy increased tensions

-Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz and German nationalists saw a large navy as the legitimate mark of a great world power and as a source of pride and patriotic unity

-But British leaders such as David Lloyd George saw it as a despicable military challenge, which forced them to spend the “People’s Budget” on battleships instead of social welfare

-In 1909, the London Daily Mail informed its readers that Germany was preparing to destroy the British empire

-Britain was psychologically, if not officially, on France and Russia’s side

  • The leading nations of Europe were divided into two hostile blocs, both ill-prepared to deal with upheaval on Europe’s southeastern front
  • The Triple Alliance = Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy
  • The Triple Entente = Russia + France + Britain

4)Wilhelm II’s mistakes

  • Bismarck

Bismarck’s principles:

1) Avoid a 2 front war at all costs

-a war on 2 fronts was his big fear

-In order to do this, Germany needs Russia on their side

2) Germany is a satisfied nation

-It’s happy with its territory: done with expansion

-Within Europe, Germany had no territorial ambitions and only wanted peace

3) Never build up the navy

-He didn’t want to upset the British

-After 1891, Britain was the only uncommitted Great power

  • He fired Bismarck

-Bismarck had a friendly policy toward Russia

-Wilhelm was ticked off at the Russians because he wanted moreties with Austria-Hungary

-didn’t want to be seen as weak

-wanted popularity with socialist workers

-Bismarck wanted to make it illegal for the Democratic Socialist Party to exist

-Wilhelm cared a lot about how people viewed him

-He didn’t want to be Bismarck’s puppet, like his father was

  • Russian-Germany Reinsurance Treaty

-Bismarck created this treaty with Russia and Alexander III

-Wilhelm II allowed it to expire

-Russia was then a free agent  they sided with France and became military allies in 1894

-in both countries, there were enthusiastic public demonstrations of friendship and offers of loans and arms

  • Wilhelm built up the navy

-went against Bismarck’s principles

-This made the British mad  they sided with France

  • He continued to push Austria Hungary to get the Balkans

-He was not acting satisfied, which went against Bismarck’s principles

5)The collapsing of the Ottoman empire

  • It’s falling apart

-nationalism was destroying the Ottoman Empire and threatening to break up the Austro-Hungarian Empire

-Greece had long before led the struggle for national liberation, winning its independence from the Ottoman Turks in 1832.

-Widespread nationalist rebellion had resulted in Turkish repression, Russian intervention, and Great Power tensions.

-Bismarck had helped resolve this crisis at the 1878 Congress of Berlin, which worked out the partial division of Turkish possessions in Europe.

  • Their downfallcreated a power vacuum
  • Serbia and Romania broke away and won independence

-Serbia wanted to create a “greater Serbia”

  • However, Austria-Hungary wanted it

-Serbia was very hostile toward Austria-Hungary

  • Both the Serbs and Russians were Slavs  they had a cultural similarity  they had a side agreement

6)Nationalism

  • Austria-Hungary: wanted greater influence in the Balkans
  • Germany: not really satisfied with their territories
  • France: wanted revenge for the Franco-Prussian War
  • This led to militarism

7)Militarism

  • Larger armies

-created tension and hostility

-if you’re spending all this money on your armies, then you want to use them

  • Defending one’s nation and expanding one’s border

-countries were trying to keep up with everyone

  • Not Britain: they focused on the navy

-They spent the People’s Budget on the navy because of the German threat

7A. Military Plans

  • France had 15 plans on how to defeat Germany
  • If you have a plan, you’re more likely to act on it
  • You’re more confident that you’ll win because you have a “foolproof” plan

8)Imperialism

  • The competition for colonies created a hostile environment
  • France and Germany almost went to war over Morocco

-But it was solved by the Berlin Conference

Also, every country was blind to their problems

-They all made blunders due to foolhardiness

-Things don’t always go according to plan

Funeral for Edward VII of England

  • Purpose: to show how everyone is related
  • Edward’s nicknames:
  • The Uncle of Europe- because everyone’s so related
  • The Encircler

-given to him by Kaiser Wilhelm II

-Wilhelm hated Edward because he blamed him for the formation of the Triple Entente, even though it was his own fault

  • Wilhelm thought he could take advantage of George V, the next in line for the English throne

Catalysts

1908: Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina

  • They did this to block Serbian expansion and to take advantage of Russia’s weakness after the revolution of 1905
  • But this makes Serbia upset because they wanted to take this territory and build their nation because it had many Serbs

-Tied in with nationalism

  • In the first Balkan War, Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack the Ottoman empire and then quarreled with Bulgaria over the spoils of victory. This led to the Second Balkan War.

-Austria intervened in 1913 and forced Serbia to give up Albania

-After centuries, nationalism had finally destroyed the Ottoman Empire in Europe

-The Balkan nationalities rejoiced and Austria-Hungary was worried. There was a chance that Austria itself might be next to be broken apart.

  • Germany came to Austria’s aid
  • Russia wanted to defend Serbia

-But Wilhelm II told Nicholas II to mind his own business

-He backed down, but said it was the last time he would ever back down to “Uncle Willy” again

1914: “The Black Hand”assassinated the Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand

  • From Bosnia themselves, the Black Handwas the terrorist group who to become a part of Serbia
  • They were waiting for the opportune moment, which came when Arch Duke Ferdinand decided to travel through Bosniato visit the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo

-Arch Duke Ferdinand was the heir next in line to the Austro-Hungary throne

  • Ferdinand wanted to celebrate the land and his wedding anniversary with his wife Sophia

-She wasn’t allowed to be seen with him because she was of a lower noble class

-This was the first time that she was allowed to be seen with him in public

  • The mistakes

1)The Bosnia newspaper had published his whole schedule and route

-where and when he would be

-he wanted people to come and see him

2)He rode down the streets with the top down on his convertible

-He was determined to present a friendly outlook to the people

-but he was vulnerable

3)He didn’t want a large army in the streets, so he only had 100 policemen

-he didn’t want to look unfriendly

4)1st attempt to kill him = they threw a grenade at his car, but it bounced off and hit someone else. After this happened, he continued on with the plans of his day

-he wanted to meet the governor of Bosnia

  • Gavrillio Princip = the man who killed the Arch Duke

-he was only 19

-He and the Black Hand’s plans went awry, so he gave up and decided to go to a deli to eat a sandwich

-Meanwhile, Ferdinand’s driver took a wrong turn and ended up in front of that same deli. The car stalled as he tried to back up.

-Gavrillio came out and saw the car and then shot Ferdinand and his wife, who may have been pregnant.

-He was arrested before he could shoot himself.

***THIS STARTS WWI***

TheAustrian Ultimatum for Serbia

  • Austro-Hungary was very upset that the arch duke was assassinated and blamed Serbia

-lots of anger at those responsible

-they thought Serbia had to be severely punished

  • They saw an opportunity to defeat Serbia, their enemy in the Balkans, and therefore expand their territory
  • William II of Germany encouraged them to give Serbia an ultimatum that would be so ridiculous it would make Serbia declare war

-He told Austriaif they went to war, then Germany would support them

  • The treaty had many conditions which all had to be met in 48 hours.

-The treaty was ridiculous, and their demands would basically amount to ceding control of Serbia to Austria

  • Serbia was actually okay with the ultimatum, but wanted some arbitration.

-They agreed to most of it except for the rule saying that Austria could send their troops marching through Serbia, door to door, finding the traitors involved in the Black Hand assignation of the arch duke

-they didn’t trust Serbia to get the job done

-Serbia didn’t like this and said no way

  • Austro-Hungary said no to arbitration, as advised by Germany

-They were counting on Serbia refusing to cooperate

-started the wheels turning towards war

  • Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia

-They deliberately chose war in a last attempt to stop the rising ride of hostile nationalism within its borders and save the existing state

-The “Third Balkan War” had begun

-It seems clear that Austria-Hungary deliberately started this war, their response to the aggressive and revolutionary drive of the Serbian nationalists to unify their people in a single state

  • Austria-Hungary depended on Germany’s support

-Germany pushed and goaded them into war

-Wilhelm II and his chancellor Hollweg realized that war between Austria and Russia would most likely follow because Russia couldn’t stand by and watch Serbia fight

-Yet Hollweg hoped that while Russia (and therefore France) would go to war, Britain would remain neutral

German aggression

  • Why Germany was so aggressive is still debated
  • Diplomatic historians suggest that German leaders lost control of the international system after Bismarck was fired in 1890

-Germany’s status as a world power was declining, while that of Britain, France, Russia, and the United States was growing

-Great Britain, France, and Russia were checking Germany’s aspirations as well as working to strangle Austria-Hungary, Germany’s only real ally

  • Germany’s aggression in 1914 reflected the failure of all European leaders, not just those in Germany, to incorporate Bismarck’s mighty empire permanently and peacefully into the international system
  • A more controversial interpretation argues that domestic conflicts and social tensions lay at the root of German aggression

-Germany was determined to hold on to power and was frightened by the rising socialist movement

-the German ruling class wanted diplomatic victory and even war to rally the masses to its side and preserve its privileged position

-Historians also noticed similar behavior in Great Britain, where leaders faced civil war in Ireland, and in Russia, where the revolution of 1905 created dissatisfaction of the czar

  • This debate over social tensions and domestic political factors correctly suggests that the triumph of nationalism was a crucial underlying precondition of the Great War

-Nationalism was at the heart of the Balkan wars

-Nationalism also drove the spiraling arms race

-Popularnationalism weakened groups that thought in terms of international communities and consequences

*In each country, the great majority of the population enthusiastically embraced the outbreak of war and believed that their country had been wronged, so they rallied to defend it**

-Patriotic nationalism brought unity in the short run

  • In all of this, the wealthy governing classes certainly underestimated the risk of war to themselves in 1914

-They had forgotten that great wars and great social revolutions very often go hand in hand

Why Russia entered

  • Russia came to Serbia’s aid and mobilized their troops
  • Then the Germans gave the Russians and ultimatum: stop mobilizing your troops in 48 hours, or else we’ll step in

-This was an impossible request

-Russia had awful communication and couldn’t get the message to everyone in 48 hours

-Also, in 1908, Nicholas II said that he wasn’t going to listen to Germany and “Uncle Willy” anymore

  • Germany declared war on Russia
  • Germany didn’t really want to go to war with Russia they were using tactics of brinkmanship
  • Brinkmanship = using war to manipulate someone, while still hoping that you won’t end up going to war

Why France entered

  • Germany had to declare war onFrance
  • If they didn’t:

1)France would form an alliance with Russia

2)Or France would declare war on Germany after the Germany troops were tied up in Russia

*Germany wanted to make the first move and take the offensive

General Schlieffen’s Plan

  • His strategy was based off of Hannibal and the Battle of Canae: but this was a different time, with different technology
  • To avoid a two front war:

-Put 90% of your troops in France and leave 10% in Germany to hold off Russia