Indian National Movement

Indian National Movement

The first Satyagraha movements inspired by Mahatma Gandhi occurred in Champaran district of Bihar in the year 1917. The Champaran Satyagraha was the first to be started, but the word Satyagraha was used for the first time in Anti Rowlatt Act agitation.

Champaran, a district in the state of Bihar where tens of thousands of landless serfs, indentured labourers and poor farmers were forced to grow indigo and other cash crops instead of the food crops which were necessary for their survival. These goods were bought from the farmers at a very low price. Suppressed by the brutal militias of the landlords, they were given negligible compensation, leaving them in extreme poverty. Even in the throes of a devastating famine, the British government levied a heavy tax on them and insisted on increasing the rate. Without food and money, the situation was growing progressively unbearable and the peasants in Champaran revolted against the government in indigo plant cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and in 1916 at (Turkaulia).Gandhi was requested by Rajkumar Shukla who was an indigo cultivator, to look into the problems of the indigo planters, of Champaran in Bihar. Gandhi ji arrived in Champaran on 10 April 1917 with a team of eminent lawyers i.e.Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Acharya Kripalani.

The European planters had been forcing peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 of the total land (called tinkathia system).

Towards the end of the 19th century German synthetic dyes replaced indigo
European planters demanded high rents and illegal dues from the peasants in order to maximise their profits before the peasants could shift to other crops.
Besides, the peasants were forced to sell the produce at prices fixed by the Europeans.
When Gandhi reached Charnparan to probe into the matter, the authorities ordered him to leave the area at once.
Gandhi defied the order and preferred to face the punishment.
This passive resistance or civil disobedience of an unjust order was a novel method at that time.
Finally, the authorities retreated and permitted Gandhi to make an enquiry.
Government appointed a committee to look into the matter and nominated Gandhi as a member.
Gandhi was able to convince the authorities that the tinkathia system should be abolished and the peasants should be compensated for the illegal dues extracted from them.
As a compromise with the planters, he agreed that only 25 % of the money taken should be compensated.
Within a decade, the planters left the area.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First Non-Cooperation Movement

Because of drought in 1918, the crops failed in Kheda district of Gujarat.
According to Revenue Code, if the yield was less than 1/4th of the normal produce, the farmers were entitled to remission.
The authorities refused to grant remission.
Gandhi supported the peasants cause and asked them to withhold revenue.
The authorities, not willing to openly concede the peasants demands, issued secret instructions that only those who could afford to pay should pay.
During the Kheda Satyagraha, many young nationalists such as Sardar Patel and Indulal Yagnik became Gandhi’s followers.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—First Hunger Strike

Gandhi now intervened in a dispute between mill owners of Ahmedabad and the workers over the issue of discontinuation of the plague bonus.
Gandhi asked the workers to go on a strike and demand a 35 % increase in wages.
The employers were willing to concede a 20 % bonus only.
Gandhi advised the workers to remain non-violent while on strike.
He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the worker’s resolve.
Mill owners finally agreed to give the workers a 35 % increase in wages.

Satyagraha against Rowlatt Act – First Mass Strike

Just when the nationalists were expecting post war constitutional concessions, the Government came out with the repressive Rowlatt Act which the nationalists took as an insult.
Rowlatt Act, 1919

Also known as Black Act
Was mainly aimed to look into the militant Nationalist activities.
Any person could be arrested on the basis of suspicion.
No appeal or petition could be filed against such arrests max for 2 years

Gandhi called for a nationwide protest in Feb 1919.
But soon, having seen the constitutional protest fail, Gandhi organised a Satyagraha Sabha and roped in younger members of Home Rule Leagues and the Pan Islamists.
The forms of protest finally chosen included observance of a nationwide hartal (strike) accompanied by fasting and prayer, and civil disobedience against specific laws, and courting arrest and imprisonment.

There was a radical change in the situation by now—

The masses had found a direction; now they could “act“ instead of just giving verbal expression to their grievances.
From now onwards, peasants, artisans and the urban poor were to play an increasingly important part in the struggle.
Orientation of the national movement turned to the masses permanently.

Jalliawalla Bagh Massacre April 13, 1919

In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
Facing a violent situation, Government handed over the administration to the military authorities under General Dyer.
General Dyer banned all public meetings and detained the political leaders.

On Baisakhi day, a large, crowd of people mostly from neighbouring villages, unaware of the prohibitory orders in the city, had gathered in this small park to protest against the arrest of their leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal

The Army surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyer
They blocked the only exit point and opened fire on the unarmed crowd
This resulted in nationwide protest against this massacre & Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood as a protest.
Gandhi was overwhelmed by atmosphere of violence and withdrew the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement on April 18, 1919.

Khilafat Movement, 1919

Chief cause → Defeat of Turkey in the First World War & harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920)
Treaty terms was felt by the Muslims as a great insult to them
Whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims all over the world.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, and the Ali brothers were the prominent leaders of this movement.
Subsequently, the Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

Non-Cooperation Movement was a sequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat Movement
It was approved by the INC at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.

Special Features of NCM

Movement began with Mahatma Gandhi renouncing the titles, given by the British
Surrender of titles and honorary positions along with resignation of membership from the local bodies
Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919 Act
Legislatures were boycotted, No leader of the Congress came forward to contest the elections for the Legislatures.
Boycott of government functions, courts, government schools and colleges, & of foreign goods
Establishment of national schools, colleges and private panchayat courts
Popularizing swadeshi goods and khadi

Points of Prominence

Peasants, Students, women & Muslims actively participated in this movement
Khadi & Charkha became a symbol of NCM
Bonfires of foreign clothes were organized
Movement marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of the merger of Khilafat movement
1921, mass demonstrations were held against the Prince of Wales during his tour of India
Many leaders were arrested & Congress & Khilafat Committees were proclaimed as illegal.
But the whole movement was abruptly called off on 11th February 1922 by Gandhi following the Chauri Chaura incident in the Gorakpur district of UP (22 policemen burnt)
In March 1922 Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in jail (NCM) but released from prison on health grounds in February 1924

Causes for the Rise of Extremism

Failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892)
An all India famine in 1896, British did not take any famine relief measures approximately 90 lakh people died; moderates were unable to force British to take any measures.
Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 in which Japan defeated the European power Russia.
This encouraged Indians to fight against the European nation, Britain.

This was true to some extent but Curzon’s real motives were -

To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base of Indian nationalism.
To divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
To show the enormous power of the British Government in doing whatever it liked

Immediate cause → Reactionary rule of Lord Curzon

Calcutta Corporation Act, (1899) reducing the Indian control of this local body
Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected members in the University bodies & reduced the autonomy of the universities and made them government departments
Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act (1904) reduced the freedoms of people & press
His worst measure was the Partition of Bengal (1905)

Partition of Bengal

Partition of Bengal in 1905 provided a spark for the rise of extremism in the Indian National Movement. The official reason given for the decision was that Bengal with a population of 78 million (about a quarter of the population of British India) had become too big to be administered.

Declaration of Swaraj & Beginning of Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement had its genesis, in the anti-partition movement which was started to oppose the British decision to partition Bengal.
The Indian National Congress, meeting in 1905 under the presidency of Gokhale, resolved to

condemn the partition of Bengal and the reactionary policies of Curzon
support the anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement of Bengal

The militant nationalists led by Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh wanted the movement to be taken outside Bengal to other parts of the country and go beyond a boycott of foreign goods to become a full-fledged political mass struggle with the goal of attaining swaraj. But the Moderates, dominating the Congress at that time, were not willing to go that far.

However, aggressive nationalists forced Dadabhai Naoroji to speak of Swaraj (which was not a Moderate demand) in the Calcutta Session of Congress in 1906
The Extremist emboldened by Dadabhai Naoroji’s declaration gave a call for passive resistance in addition to swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods
This included boycott of government schools and colleges, government service, courts, legislative councils, municipalities, government titles, etc.

Surat Split, 1907

The Moderate Congressmen were unhappy as they wanted Swaraj to be achieved through constitutional methods.
The Moderate-Extremist dispute over techniques led to a split in the Congress at the Surat session in 1907, popularly known as the famous Surat Split.
Extremists came out of the Congress led by Tilak and others

Swadeshi Movement (Vandemataram movement)

It was both a political and economic movement
Involved programmes like the boycott of government service, courts, schools and colleges and of foreign goods
Promotion of Swadeshi goods
Promotion of National Education through the establishment of national schools and colleges
Landlords, Women and students actively participated & Students refused using books made of foreign paper
Absence of participation of Peasants as well as industrialists

Government Measures

The cry of Bande Mataram was forbidden by government
Restriction on public meetings & suppression of freedom of the press
Schools & colleges were warned not to allow their students to take part in the movement or else their aid would be stopped
Students who were found guilty of participation were to be disqualified for government jobs or for government scholarships, and disciplinary action— fine, expulsion, arrest, beating, etc. —was to be taken against them.
Extremist leaders Lal, Bal, Pal & Aurobindo Ghosh were imprisoned and deported.

Noteworthy Points

Some of the Muslims participated—Barrister Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain, Guznavi, Maulana Azad
But most of the upper and middle class Muslims stayed away or, led by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca
They supported the partition on the plea that it would give them a Muslim-majority East Bengal
To further government interests, the All India Muslim League was propped up in 1907 as an anti-Congress front

Formation of the Muslim League (1906)

Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim Educational Conference.
Taking advantage of this occasion, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of an organisation to look after the Muslim interests.
The proposal was accepted & All-India Muslim League was finally set up on December 30, 1906.
Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted annual sessions and put their demands to the British government.
Their 1st achievement was the separate electorates for Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms.

Decline of Swadeshi Movement

By 1908, the open phase (as different from the underground revolutionary phase) of the movement was almost over due to many reasons viz.

There was severe government repression.
The movement failed to create an effective organisation or a party structure.
The movement was rendered leaderless with most of the leaders either arrested or deported by 1908
Aurobindo-Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal retired from active politics.
Internal squabbles among leaders, magnified by the Surat split (1907), did much harm to the movement.
The movement aroused the people but did not know how to tap the newly released energy or how to find new forms to give expression to popular resentment.
The movement largely remained confined to the upper and middle classes and zamindars, and failed to reach the masses—especially the peasantry.
Non-cooperation and passive resistance remained mere ideas.
It was difficult to sustain a mass-based movement at a high pitch for too long.

Extremists – Objective, Methods & Achievements

Objective / To attain Swaraj or self-government
Methods /

No faith in the British sense of justice
Believed that political rights will have to be fought for
Had the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination
Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government courts, schools and colleges
Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods
Introduction and promotion of national education

Achievements /

1st to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.
1st to involve the masses in the freedom struggle.
1st to organize an all-India political movement, viz. the Swadeshi Movement

Civil Disobedience movement & Round Table Conferences

Gandhi’s Eleven Demands

To carry forward the mandate given by the Lahore Congress, Gandhi presented eleven demands to the Government & gave an ultimatum of January 31, 1930 to accept or reject these demands.

Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services by 50 per cent.
Introduce total prohibition.
Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of firearms licence
Release political prisoners.
Accept Postal Reservation Bill.
Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
Introduce textile protection.
Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent.
Abolish salt tax and government’s salt monopoly.

Civil Disobedience Movement

With no positive response forthcoming from the Government on these demands, the Congress Working Committee invested Gandhi with full powers to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

Civil Disobedience movement & Round Table Conferences

Gandhi’s Eleven Demands

To carry forward the mandate given by the Lahore Congress, Gandhi presented eleven demands to the Government & gave an ultimatum of January 31, 1930 to accept or reject these demands.

Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services by 50 per cent.
Introduce total prohibition.
Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of firearms licence
Release political prisoners.
Accept Postal Reservation Bill.
Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
Introduce textile protection.
Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent.
Abolish salt tax and government’s salt monopoly.

Civil Disobedience Movement

With no positive response forthcoming from the Government on these demands, the Congress Working Committee invested Gandhi with full powers to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

Dandi March (March 12 – April 6, 1930)

Gandhi, along with a band of 78 members of Sabarmati Ashram, was to march from his headquarters in Ahmedabad through the villages of Gujarat for 240 miles.
The historic march, marking, the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement, began on March 12, and Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a handful of salt at Dandi on April 6.
Gandhi gave the following directions for future action -

Wherever possible civil disobedience of the salt law should be started.
Foreign liquor and cloth shops can be picketed.
Refuse to pay taxes
Lawyers can give up practice.
Public can boycott law courts by refraining from litigation.
Government servants can resign from their posts.
All these should be subject to one condition—truth and non-violence as means to attain swaraj should be faithfully adhered to.
Local leaders should be obeyed after Gandhi’s arrest.

Arrest of many national leaders along with Nehru & Gandhi (Yeravada jail) evoked massive protests in many parts of the country. Few noteworthy incidents were –

Chittagong /

Surya Sen’s Chittagong Revolt Group carried out a raid on two armouries
Declared the establishment of a provisional government

Peshawar /

Gaffar Khan, also called Badshah Khan and Frontier Gandhi
Started the first Pushto political monthly Pukhtoon
Organised a volunteer brigade ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’, popularly known as the ‘Red-Shirts’
They were pledged to the freedom struggle & non-violence
Ghaffar Khan was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1987 by the Government of India

Sholapur /

This industrial town of southern Maharashtra saw the fiercest response to Gandhi’s arrest.
Textile workers went on a strike and along with other residents burnt liquor shops
Destroyed symbols of government authority such as railway stations, police stations, municipal buildings, law courts, etc.

Assam /

A powerful agitation was organised against the infamous ‘Cunningham circular’
Cunningham circular forced parents, guardians and students to furnish assurances of good behaviour

Manipur and Nagaland /

At the young age of thirteen, Rani Gaidinliu of Nagaland raised the banner of revolt against foreign rule
She was captured in 1932 and sentenced to life imprisonment

Impact of Agitation

Imports of foreign cloth and other items fell.
Government income from liquor, excise and land revenue fell.
Elections to Legislative Assembly were largely boycotted.

Every section of society as Students, Women, Tribals, Merchants and Petty Traders, Workers & Peasants took active part in CDM. Although Muslims participated but their participation was nowhere near the 1920-22 level because of appeals by Muslim leaders to stay away from the movement and because of, active government encouragement to communal dissension.