REPORT OF THE BRITISH NATIONAL GROUP

LIDC – Amsterdam Congress

Question B - 2006

“Should the objectives of the rules on unfair competition be the protection of competitors, or consumers, or of other interests?

How should any conflict between these objectives be resolved ?”

INDEX

Introduction

Unfair Competition law in England

Passing Off – Summary

Responses to the Questionnaire

I. General

II. Material Rules

III. Non-economic aspects

IV. Procedural

V. Opinions

Appendix A – UK Legislation likely to be affected by Directive 2005/29/EC

Introduction

  1. This is the report of the British National Group for Question B in 2006 and reflects the law in England and Wales as at February 2006.[1]
  1. England and Wales differ from many continental jurisdictions in that there is no developed doctrine of unfair competition law per se and accordingly this question has been approached from the perspective of a those laws closest to unfair competition law in England and Wales and, in particular, the law of passing off.
  1. A summary of the scope of unfair competition and passing off law is provided before general observations on the topic are set out and answers to the various questions given.

Unfair Competition law in England

  1. In the context of the question, we have considered unfair competition as a private cause of action which can be brought by one legal entity against another to prevent the latter taking unfair advantage of the former. Accordingly this report does not consider the wider issues of competition law governed by the prohibitions in the Competition Act 1998.
  1. In summary, the current position in England is that there is no clearly-defined law of unfair competition which can form the basis of a cause of action. Accordingly, this report cannot answer the questions exactly as they have been posed because English law is not easily categorised into the various distinctions which have been drawn. The position was summarised by Mr Justice Jacob, as he then was, in a 1995 case[2]:

There is no tort of copying. There is no tort of taking a man's market or customers. Neither the market nor the customers are the plaintiff's to own. There is no tort of making use of another's goodwill as such. There is no tort of competition. I say this because at times the plaintiffs seemed close to relying on such torts… Never has the tort [of passing off] shown even the slight tendency to stray beyond cases of deception. Were it to do it would enter the field of honest competition. Why there should be any such reason I cannot imagine. It would serve only to stifle competition...

  1. This is the accepted judicial view, although as will be seen from the discussion of the law of passing off below, the boundaries of that tort are being pushed all the time.
  1. A useful starting point is Article 10bis of the Paris Convention, of which the United Kingdom is a signatory. The Article provides:

“Article 10bis

(1) The countries of the Union are bound to assure to nationals of such countries effective protection against unfair competition.

(2) Any act of competition contrary to honest practices in industrial or commercial matters constitutes an act of unfair competition.

(3) The following in particular shall be prohibited:

1. all acts of such a nature as to create confusion by any means whatever with the establishment, the goods, or the industrial or commercial activities, of a competitor;

2. false allegations in the course of trade of such a nature as to discredit the establishment, the goods, or the industrial or commercial activities, of a competitor;

3. indications or allegations the use of which in the course of trade is liable to mislead the public as to the nature, the manufacturing process, the characteristics, the suitability for their purpose, or the quantity, of the goods.”

  1. Although subsection (2) talks about acts of competition contrary to honest practices in industrial and commercial matters, this is not a term which has become commonplace in judicial analysis of the law of passing off.
  1. English law does provide causes of action which are akin to ‘unfair competition’ in addition to passing off, including malicious falsehood, wrongful interference with contractual relations and certain complaints that can be made to either trading standards officers (local Government employees) in relation to misleading prices and false trade descriptions. In addition other regulators monitor acts in relation to misleading or comparative advertising.
  1. In the Advocaat Case[3] in 1979, Lord Diplock stated:

“Unfair trading as a wrong actionable at the suit of other traders who thereby suffer loss of business of goodwill may take a variety of forms, to some of which separate labels have become attached in English law. Conspiracy to injure a person in his trade or business in one, slander of goods another, but the most protean is that which is generally and nowadays, perhaps misleadingly, described as passing off.”

  1. The phrase “unfair competition” has been more widely used in judgments and learned writings in at least three distinct ways, namely (i) as a synonym of the tort of passing off; (ii) as a generic term to cover the range of legal and equitable causes of action available to protect a trader against the unlawful trading activities of a competitor; and (iii) to describe what is claimed to be a new and general cause of action which protects a trader against damage caused either by “unfair competition” generally or, more particularly, by the “misappropriation” of knowledge or information in which he has a “quasi-proprietary” right.[4]
  1. The third category contains things such as protection of trade secrets (which are arguably a major branch of unfair competition law in many other jurisdictions). Clearly misappropriating another business’ trade secrets is not in accordance with honest practices in industrial or commercial matters, but it has no clear consumer dimension to speak of. English law prevents trade secrets through a developed common law of confidential information, but does not do so explicitly by reference to a law of “unfair competition”.
  1. The introduction of Directive 2005/29/EC on unfair commercial practices is presently the subject of a consultation being carried out by the Department of Trade and Industry of the UK Government.[5] This consultation has identified a number of pieces of existing UK legislation that may need to be modified by its implementation and a draft regulation will be published in the Autumn of 2006 which is intended to implement the directive into UK law. This list of legislation that may be amended is reproduced at Appendix A and the more important statutes are described below. As passing off is a common law tort, any consequent changes to the law in that area would be made only by way of judicial decisions, rather than legislation.

Passing Off – Summary

  1. Passing off is a tort which protects the ‘get up’ of a person’s products and services. It has a much wider theoretical scope than registered trade mark infringement, but can be evidentially far more difficult to prove. Unlike a registered trade mark, a right in passing off is not to be considered as providing a monopoly right, but whether a trader obtains a de jure monopoly is often a moot point.
  1. Lord Halsbury LC in Magnolia Metal Co v Tandem Smelting Syndicate Ltd talked about the genesis of the tort as follows:

"My Lords, that cause of action is, as I have said, a very old and a very familiar one. 250 years ago, in the case of Southern v How, reported in Popham's Reports at page 144, Doderidge J, quoting a case earlier in point of date, namely in the 22nd of Elizabeth, says,

'An action upon the case was brought in the Common Pleas by a clothier, that whereas he had gained great reputation for his making of his cloth, and by reason whereof he had great utterance to his great benefit and profit, and that he used to set his mark to the cloth whereby it should be known to be his cloth, and another clothier perceiving it, used the same mark to his ill-made cloth on purpose to deceive him, it was resolved that an action did well lie'.

Going back, therefore, as far as the reign of Elizabeth the form of action which this Statement of Claim adopts has undoubtedly been a form of action in which if the right of a man to have the reputation of selling that which is his manufacture as his manufacture, the right to prevent other people fraudulently stating that it is their manufacture when it is not - if that right is infringed there is a remedy. That has, as I have said, ever since the reign of Elizabeth, been established in our Courts as being a right of action upon which anybody may sue who has a ground for doing so."

  1. A modern statement of the law is that given by Lord Diplock in Warnink v Townend (the Advocaat case) where he identified five general requirements from the previous case law for passing off to be made out:

(1) a misrepresentation

(2) made by a trader in the course of trade

(3) to prospective customers of his or ultimate consumers of goods or services supplied by him,

(4) which is calculated to injure the business or goodwill of another trader (in the sense that this is a reasonably foreseeable consequence) and

(5) which causes actual damage to a business or goodwill of the trader by whom the action is brought or (in a quia timet action) will probably do so."

  1. In Reckitt & Coleman v Borden Inc (the so-called “Jif Lemon case”)[6], Lord Oliver of Aylmerton made the following observations:

Although your Lordships were referred in the course of the argument to a large number of reported cases, this is not a branch of the law in which reference to other cases is of any real assistance except analogically. It has been observed more than once that the questions which arise are, in general, questions of fact. Neither the appellants nor the respondents contend that the principles of law are in any doubt. The law of passing off can be summarised in one short general proposition - no man may pass off his goods as those of another. More specifically, it may be expressed in terms of the elements which the plaintiff in such an action has to prove in order to succeed. These are three in number.

First, he must establish a goodwill or reputation attached to the goods or services which he supplies in the mind of the purchasing public by association with the identifying "get-up" (whether it consists simply of a brand name or a trade description, or the individual features of labelling or packaging) under which his particular goods or services are offered to the public, such that the get-up is recognised by the public as distinctive specifically of the plaintiff's goods or services.

Secondly, he must demonstrate a misrepresentation by the defendant to the public (whether or not intentional) leading or likely to lead the public to believe that goods or services offered by him are the goods or services of the plaintiff. Whether the public is aware of the plaintiff's identity as the manufacturer or supplier of the goods or services is immaterial, as long as they are identified with a particular source which is in fact the plaintff. For example, if the public is accustomed to rely upon a particular brand name in purchasing goods of a particular description, it matters not at all that there is little or no public awareness of the identity of the proprietor of the brand name.

Thirdly, he must demonstrate that he suffers or, in a quia timet action, that he is likely to suffer damage by reason of the erroneous belief engendered by the defendant's misrepresentation that the source of the defendant's goods or services is the same as the source of those offered by the plaintiff.

  1. A consequence of these definitions is that it is possible to obtain remedies in passing off that could not be achieved by means of registered trade mark law. In particular passing off looks to the whole get-up of the claimants products or services. The facts that the claimant’s goods are sold in a certain manner, packaged in a particular packaging (e.g. a plastic lemon), or presented to consumers in a certain way (e.g. they are likely to be sold on adjacent supermarket shelves to the infringing products), are also taken into consideration.
  1. Passing off generally requires the claimant to provide proof of a likelihood of actual confusion at the point of sale. However, it has been said that passing off is intended to provide protection against unfair trading, and its boundaries are neither rigid nor closed.
  1. In Irvine v Talksport Ltd[7] Mr Justice Laddie stated:

“The sort of cases which come within the scope of a passing off action has not remained stationary over the years. This is for two reasons. First, passing off is closely connected to and dependent upon what is happening in the market place. It is a judge made law which tries to ensure, in its own limited way, a degree of honesty and fairness in the way trade is conducted. … an underlying principle is the maintenance of what is currently regarded as fair trading.The law of passing off responds to changes in the nature of trade. ..Second, the law itself has refined over the years…

…Not only has the law of passing off expanded over the years, but the commercial environment in which it operates is in a constant state of flux.”

  1. In this case, passing off was used to provide a remedy for the Formula 1 racing driver, Eddie Irvine, whose image had been used in an advertisement endorsing the defendant radio station, Talksport, without his permission. Talksport had amended a picture of Mr Irvine so that it showed him holding a radio (rather than his mobile phone) suggesting that he listened to Talksport. Mr Irvine put forward strong evidence to show that he would only allow the goodwill associated with his name and image to be used in circumstances where he was paid a substantial fee. Accordingly, it was a misrepresentation to suggest he had endorsed the radio station and as a result of the advertisement he had suffered damage in the form of fee he had not received. MrJustice Laddie held that:

“If someone acquires a valuable reputation or goodwill, the law of passing off will protect it from unlicensed use by other parties. Such use will frequently be damaging in the direct sense that it will involve selling inferior goods or services under the guise that they are from the claimant. But the action is not restricted to protecting against that sort of damage. The law will vindicate the claimant's exclusive right to the reputation or goodwill. It will not allow others to so use goodwill as to reduce, blur or diminish its exclusivity.”

  1. This accords with the observations of Lord Justice Aldous in British Telecommunications Plc and others v One in a Million Ltd[8]. The case related to a cybersquatter who had registered as domain names, the names of many well-known high street stores and attempted to sell the registrations to the high street stores for vastly inflated sums.
  1. Lord Justice Aldous in that case held that:

“The cause of action called passing off is of ancient origin. It has developed over time. As Lord Diplock pointed out in the Warnink case, Parliament has over the years progressively intervened in the interests of consumers and traders so as to impose standards of conduct and to ensure commercial honesty. It is therefore not surprising that the courts have recognised that the common law, in that particular field, should proceed upon a parallel course rather than a diverging one. Lord Diplock explained how the cause of action had moved from the classical form over the years. His five characteristics were those he identified in 1980 from previously decided cases, but I do not believe that he was thereby confining forever the cause of action to every detail of such characteristics, as to do so would prevent the common law evolving to meet changes in methods of trade and communication as it had in the past.”

  1. In this way, Lord Justice Aldous was able to find in favour of the high street stores on the basis that the defendant was passing off the domain name registrations as “instruments of deception”. He said,

“A name which will, by reason of its similarity to the name of another, inherently lead to passing off is such an instrument [of deception]. If it would not inherently lead to passing off, it does not follow that it is not an instrument of fraud. The court should consider the similarity of names, the intention of the defendant, the type of trade and all the surrounding circumstances. If it be the intention of the defendant to appropriate the goodwill of another or enable others to do so, I can see no reason why the court should not infer that that will happen, even if there is a possibility that such appropriate would not take place.”

  1. In the case Lord Justice Aldous was prepared to find that the mere registration of the domain names would lead to an erosion of goodwill in the names which either caused damage, or was likely to damage, the rightful owners.
  1. Detailed consideration of when one party can trade by reference to another party’s trade mark was given in the case of Arsenal Football Club plc v Reed,[9] a well-known case which was referred to the ECJ on a number of points of trade mark law including the question of what constituted infringing “use” of a registered trade mark. The facts of the case related to the sale of unlicensed Arsenal football club merchandise. Matthew Reed had several street stalls which had for many years sold various items of football merchandise, including hats and scarves, outside the Arsenal football stadium, Highbury, on match days. The merchandise clearly bore the Arsenal name and crest both of which were registered trade marks. However, the merchandise was sold subject to a prominent disclaimer that the goods were unofficial and that there was no connection with Arsenal football club.
  1. Mr Reed claimed that he sold items which merely demonstrated fans’ support of the football club and that any use of the Arsenal registered trade marks was merely as badges of allegiance rather than use so as to indicate the origin of the goods. Arsenal obtained some evidence from members of the public that they had been confused as to the nature of the goods Mr Reed sold and therefore brought an action for both trade mark infringement and passing off. At first instance, the passing off case was dismissed on the ground that there had been no misrepresentation because of the use of prominent disclaimers and the lack of substantial evidence of confusion when put in the context of Mr Reed’s 30 year history of trading. The Court also did not accept that the manner in which the trade marks were used amounted to use as a trade mark and accordingly there could be no infringement despite the fact the identical signs were applied to goods identical to those for which Arsenal had obtained valid trade mark registrations. Arsenal appealed.
  1. After the ruling of the ECJ the court ultimately found that Mr Reed had indeed infringed the Arsenal registered trade marks and in the course of his judgment, Lord Justice Aldous, with whom the other members of the Court of Appeal agreed, made clear that in the court’s view:

“I realise that there was no appeal on the conclusion reached by the judge on the cause of action traditionally called passing off, perhaps best referred to as unfair competition. However I am not convinced that his reasoning was correct. The traditional form of passing off as enunciated in such cases as Reddaway v Banham [1896] A.C. 199 is no longer definitive of the ambit of the cause of action.”