Cited as: Yau, G.Y.C, Chu, S.K.W., Chiu, M.M.L., & Ting, K.K.K. (2011). Development of doctoral students’ information literacy: Applying Kuhlthau’s ISP into doctoral students’ information search. Paper presented at CITE Symposium 2011, Hong Kong.
TITLE: Development of doctoral students’ information literacy: Applying Kuhlthau’s ISP into doctoral students’ information search
YAU, G.Y.C.
Division of Information Technologies, Faulty of Education, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
E-mail:
CHU, S.K.W.
Division of Information Technologies, Faulty of Education, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
E-mail:
CHIU, M.M.L.
Division of Information Technologies, Faulty of Education, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
E-mail:
TING, K.K.K.
Division of Information Technologies, Faulty of Education, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
E-mail:
ABSTRACT
This study describes and analyzes the perspectives of postgraduate students regarding their development of information literacy and information seeking process. Information literacy is usually defined as the ability to make efficient and effective use of information sources. It is essential in helping students learn in information-laden environments, and in making sense of a variety of information sources. Previous research found that postgraduate students have insufficient knowledge in information searching, especially at the beginning stage of searching process. Kuhlthau’s (1985, 2004) Model of Information Search Process (ISP) was applied in this study. Cognitive and emotional experiences of postgraduate students were investigated to check if they are coherent with the model. Students’ actions, thoughts and feelings were recorded through structured observations, “think-aloud” protocol and computer screen capture of the search process. Furthermore, participants were requested to respond to a survey on ISP. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gain in-depth information on the students’ feelings, experiences and perceptions regarding their information behavior. This study has found that the ISP model, originally developed for high school students, is generally applicable to doctoral students. In terms of practical contribution, the information behaviors of postgraduate students are identified. A case study is used to verify the relationship between knowledge construction and search expertise, suggesting that systematic search expertise training may be relevant solutions to the students’ search problems
1. INTRODUCTION
How to facilitate students’ information seeking and use has become central to information studies. Its ultimate goal is not restricted to provide merely access to information, but also to the “right” information that prompts new understanding (Kuhlthau, 1997). There have been multiple studies focused on students’ information literacy development in higher education (Behrens, 1994; Corrall & Hathaway, 2000; Hepworth, 2000; Johnston & Webber, 2003; Kunkel, Weaver, & Cook, 1996). Although some of the studies are specific for studying postgraduate researchers’ information literacy (Gomersall, 2007; Kinn, 1996; Picken, 2005; Research Information Network, 2008), it is generally recognized that systematic information trainings for the postgraduate students still receive inadequate attention (Chu & Law, 2008; Streatfield, Allen, & Wilson, 2010). It is necessary to establish effective approaches to investigate the postgraduate students’ behavior and thus to sort out ways to facilitate their information search.
The American Library Association (1989, p. 1) indicates that an information literate should be able to “recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.” The Seven Pillars Model of Information Literacy (Town, 2000) defines the concept in a more practical way, incorporating both information skills and knowledge development in a theoretical framework with a range of levels from novice to expert. Other than the IT skills and library skills, Chu and Law (2005, 2007, 2008) illustrate information skills training as database knowledge and search skills development. Ford et al. (2003) also address the importance of search strategies in students’ search performance. Information literacy is not confined to a subset of skills (Streatfield, et al., 2010), but also the “information handling ability for lifelong learning and knowledge management (Corrall, 2000, p. 5).” With this ability, students should be able to use the information effectively in constructing new meanings (Kelly, 1963; Kuhlthau, 1991).
This study aims to investigate into the postgraduate students’ information literacy development by addressing the mentioned two dimensions – students’ knowledge construction and skills development. Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process (ISP) Model is applied in the postgraduate students’ case to investigate their research development. Their formulation of focus, as a critical stage in ISP, is highlighted in this study, to assess whether the students can experience success in information search throughout the process. Chu and Law’s (2008) Research and Information Search Expertise (shorten into RISE in the latter part) Model is also adopted, for the purpose of assessing students’ information skills development. The study will explore the relationship between formulation of focus and search expertise level by using a case study.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process Model
2.1.1 Overview of the Model
Research on the ISP Model is initiated with a real problem that most of the students, whether they are equipped with library skills or not, often find themselves overwhelmed with confusions or other negative feelings in the beginning of their search (Kuhlthau, 1985). A series of empirical studies on students and library users are thus carried out (Kuhlthau, 1985, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 1989). The ISP Model have been further verified and extended with multiple user studies on research activities (Anderson, 2006; Vakkari, 2001), workplaces (Kuhlthau, 1999; Kuhlthau & Tama, 2001) and other collaborative learning environments (HyldegÂrd, 2006; van Aalst, Fung, Li, & Wong, 2007).
The ISP research has progressively incorporated the psychological theories into the research on information seeking, to emphasize both cognitive and affective approaches in exploring users’ holistic experience during the process (Case, 2007; Vakkari, 2001; White, 2009). Considerable influence of Kelly (1963)’s work on psychology has been revealed in Kuhlthau’s ISP studies. Viewing learning as a process in which the user construct his or her own version of the reality, Kelly (1963) advocates different phases in thinking: encountering new nature of the things and feeling confused; hypothesizing and anticipating; reconstruing, or validating and testing; and connecting the findings with previous experience, which results in forming a new construct. Other studies also encourage the use of process approach in information research (Dervin & Nilan, 1986; Dewey, 1960).
Kuhlthau ‘s ISP research is parallel to these concepts that a process model is established with a flow of six stages (Figure 2.1), including initiation of task, selection of topic, exploration over different sources and especially the relevant ones, formulation of focus, collection of pertinent information, and finally, presentation of the results of information search. Adopting constructionism as a metatheory, Kuhlthau has investigated into the discourse in which the students form new meanings, through analyzing students’ journals, search logs, short written statements, interviews, conceptual maps, and the teacher’s assessment (2004). On the other hand, quantitative methods such as coding are employed in a bid to provide consolidations to the analysis.
Figure 2.1 Kuhlthau’s ISP Model.
2.1.2 Formulation
There is no concrete definition of what constitutes a focus, in light of its dependency on any given contexts, i.e. users’ perception of the situation. Kuhlthau (2004) explained the concept with an emphasis on its functionality – to serve “as a guiding idea that gives the search direction, narrows the search, and provides a basis for collecting information and making relevance judgments (p. 92).” In other words, with the formulation of focus, students should be capable of expressing their need in formalized and/or compromised statements (Taylor, 1968), voicing out a better defined problem with certain level of specificity (Belkin, Brooks, & Oddy, 1982). In line with Borlund ’s (2003, p. 923) finding that “relevance judgments evolve during the process of information retrieval interaction”, Kuhtlhau (1985, 2004) provides evidence of a shift of relevance level from a topical relevant one to a pertinent relevant one during the ISP. The results presented by students who cannot formulate a focus in the ISP are often found with superficial knowledge and unresolved frustrations (Kuhlthau, Heinstrom, & Todd, 2008).
2.2 Chu and Law’s Research and Information Search Expertise Model (RISE)
2.2.1 Overview of the Model
Chu and Law ’s (2008) RISE Model is established regarding the growth and development of knowledge and search expertise of the research students. It is generally accepted that search skills and knowledge of databases are essential components of today’s Information Retrieval (IR) and users’ studies (Chowdhury, 2010; Chu & Law, 2008; Ingwersen, 2005; Wilson, Schraefel, & White, 2009). Previous findings conclude the insufficiency of information literacy (IL) training for postgraduate researchers (Bates, 1977; Henricks & Healy, 2002; Kriflik & Kriflik, 2006; Noon, Heseltine, & Powis, 2000; Tsai & Tsai, 2003), and the lack of systematic management and clear guidelines of the trainings (Streatfield, et al., 2010). Kriflik and Kriflik (2006) suggest that a scaffold approach is effective in assisting students to acquire necessary IL skills. Calling for a delivery of comprehensive information skills training for the postgraduate students, Chu and Law (Chu, 2007; 2005, 2008) have investigated the development of twelve postgraduate students from two disciplines – Engineering and Education through a longitudinal approach. Through conducting information search trainings, the participants’ change and/or growth of knowledge are observed in the an experimental approach for the purpose of testing the existence of causal relationships (Babbie, 2010). Chu and Law (2005, p. 624) deliberately did that for the purpose of making “qualitative differences” rather than generalizations. An increase in search expertise level is demonstrated among the majority of students, exemplified by a higher level of search term usage and knowledge of multiple databases. The RISE Model (Chu & Law, 2008) is thus formed (Figure 2.2), with reference to the development of those twelve participants, in three horizontal dimensions, drawing the connection between students’ stratified information need, and knowledge and application on search skills and databases. Regarding information need as evolving in nature is parallel to Taylor (1968)’s finding. The research students should develop a growing capability of noticing and expressing their need in higher specificity, given the increasing knowledge about their study domains (Chu & Law, 2008; Vakkari, 2001). In fact, there are four hierarchies of development, namely novice, advanced beginner, competent, and proficient levels of search expertise. The RISE Model helps indicating which level the user attains by referring to the search strategies they have undertaken and the knowledge they have.
Figure 2.2 Chu & Law’s RISE Model.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
Although information skills are normally perceived as indispensable to users in acquiring what they need, whether the increase of information search expertise level can help identifying the need and formulating a focus remains unclear. Vakkari (2001) recognizes the evolution of search strategies is resulted from the growing depth and breadth of knowledge the students constructed, rather than from the growth of search expertise. However, Chu and Law (Chu, 2007; 2005, 2008) suggest the possible interdependence between information need and search expertise, by embedding the evolving need with the RISE Model. By conducting a national survey over information literacy training for postgraduate and postdoctoral researchers, Streatfield et al. (2010) also call for a training-based approach, which provides the students systematic trainings of information skills integrated with research development. Adopting a similar approach, this study aims to understand the relationship between the search expertise level and knowledge construction by adopting a process approach, assessing the students’ variations by applying the RISE Model to indicate which level the students have grown into. Kuhtlhau’s ISP Model and especially, the concept of formulation are simultaneously embedded into this study. The ISP Model seems to be especially useful in two ways: 1) to deepen the understanding of the students’ construction process; 2) to assess whether students can experience successful knowledge construction. The latter one can be analyzed with assessment upon their formulations of focus.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Participants
Eight PhD students in the Faculty of Education of the University of Hong Kong (HKU) were selected through a purposely stratified sampling. Samples are chosen strategically as a non-probability form (Bryman, 2008), that all of them were in their first year of their own doctoral programs.
3.2 Procedure
This study adopted a mixed research method approach in a bid to “offset the weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative research (Creswell, 2007, p. 9),” including surveys, interviews, “think-aloud” protocol, computer screen capture of the search process and structured observations of students’ search behavior in five training sessions over a two-year period. In each of the meeting, participants were asked to search for information that was related to their research topic for 20 minutes. It is followed by another 20-minute session of expert search conducted by the trainer, to use the scaffold approach in providing search expertise training to the students. Students and the trainer took turns in searching for 20 minutes again. Through conducting information search trainings, the participants’ change and/or growth of knowledge are observed in an experimental approach for the purpose of testing the existence of causal relationships (Babbie, 2010). At the end of the 1st, 3rd, and 5th meeting, students were asked to respond to a survey (See Appendix 1), which assessed their search knowledge and skills, and their ISP experience. An interview was conducted in the 6th meeting to understand the students’ perceptions of their search expertise and knowledge development after the training. Questions concentrate on students’ path of development and their affective experience. Three kinds of data were analyzed: 1) transcriptions of students’ think-aloud protocol as they verbalized their thoughts and actions when performing searches on databases and other web sources, 2) responses to the surveys and 3) transcriptions of interviews.
3.3 Analysis Tools for ISP Experience
Kuhlthau ’s (2004) Process Survey is adopted for the purpose of identifying the participants’ pace and path throughout the ISP in a behavioral approach. Participants were asked to answer the survey in the 1st, the 3rd and the 5th meeting, at the time when their research and the search expertise training have just started, and when they reach the mid-point and finish all the search expertise training. An assumption that students’ information activities are, to a certain extent, able to help identify different ISP stages they are experiencing, is formed by using Kuhlthau’s findings. Previous studies on ISP (HyldegÂrd, 2006) have already provided certain foundation for associating the students’ activities with the ISP stages. Furthermore, to produce descriptive statistics, answers of the specific survey questions are coded according to Kuhlthau ’s (2004, pp. 61-62) coding system (See Appendix 2).