BUSINESS WRITING:
Writing, for want of a better metaphor, is like a journey in which you, the writer, do the traveling, and your reader views the slide show once you are home. Almost always, writing occurs after the journey or event--the event being research, a project, a meeting, an internship, thinking and planning--you name it. In most academic writing, the writer attempts to reconstruct the journey and take the reader along.
Generally, business writing differs from academic writing in a significant way. If you are writing an essay, you usually lay out your foundation then proceed to expound on your thesis--allowing the essay to grow and develop as you take your reader, step-by-step, through your thinking process, your journey. Business writing is usually not like this. It is not a travelogue of your journey, allowing the reader to travel with you; rather, it is a detailed account of the end of the journey and a description of the milestones.
For example, if you are writing a report about a business decision, you do not describe all the intricacies of the peaks and valleys of your journey to reach that decision. You do, however, give your reader a report on your decision, an overall view of the trip, and a listing of the alternatives with an explanation as to why they were discarded. Your reader is not given the whole slide show recreating your trip but only sees the highlights and the final destination.
Business writing, then, is briefer and more concise than many other types of writing. Business is busy--your letter, memo, or report may only have a thirty second reading (if that) with no time for mulling or pondering. You had better get to the point quickly, support your reasoning, and finish fast.
Business writing is often like an inverted pyramid, also. You begin broadly and finish with a narrow focus--a focus directing your reader's attention to where you want it--convincing or persuading your reader of your facts, reasoning, decision, etc.
There are some niceties involved with business writing, however. When delivering bad news, for example, you don't leap right in but work up to your message using diplomacy and tact. Furthermore, you don't waste the reader's time by being obscure nor do you patronize.
Finally, business writing has some accepted formats, such as how to organize memos, reports, and letters. In addition, business writing has some generally accepted practices: writing concisely, using bullets and headings, employing short sentences, creating brief paragraphs, and getting to the point quickly.
Examples of business writing are: Memos, letters, creating visuals, proposals, reports, the executive summary, instructions, resumes and cover letters, common English errors and presentations.
MEMOS
Memos and letters are the two most common types of business communication. Memos resemble letters in that they communicate information and are commonly used in the world of business writing. However, memos differ from letters in several important ways:
- Memos are almost always used within an organization
- Memos are usually unceremonious in style
- Memos are normally used for non-sensitive communication (communication to which the reader will not have an emotional reaction)
- Memos are short and to-the-point
- Memos have a direct style
- Memos do not have a salutation
- Memos do not have a complimentary closing
- Memos have a specific format that is very different from a business letter
FORMAT
MEMORANDUM
DATE
TO
FROM
SUBJECT
TEXT OF THE MEMO………..
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT MEMO’S
Memos usually have one-inch margins on all four sides, and the writer's initials always appear next to the name at the top of the memo.
The top line of a memo usually says "Memo" or "Memorandum." The company logo or letterhead frequently goes above this. Some companies omit the words memo or memorandum, although this is not the norm.
Below the word "Memo" or "Memorandum" is the date, the name of the person or persons to whom the memo is sent, the name of the writer or sender (with the writer's initials written-in by hand), followed by a very short description of the memo's topic. Sometimes the order of these four items is altered; however, they are always present. These four items are double-spaced and a solid line is frequently drawn below them, separating them from the memo's message.
Some points to remember about good memo writing are as follows:
Be kind to your reader--use headings and bullets as necessary to make the memo easy to read and key points stand out.
Be concise--long sentences with complex construction do not belong in memos. Keep memos short and to-the-point.
Come to the point first--always use a bottom-line statement at the very beginning of a non-sensitive memo.
Remember memo format--never use a salutation or complementary closing with a memo.
Identify your attachments--if your attachments become separated from the memo, your reader will know that they were supposed to be there and can ask for them.
Be coherent--limit each paragraph to only one idea. Keep your sentences flowing smoothly, and keep them short.
Use a business-like tone--use the first person (I or we); use short, simple words; be as informal as the situation allows; use concrete, specific words.
Proofread your work--always read your work (or have someone else read it) before you sent it out.
Identify your audience--identify the person or persons to whom you are writing. Think about what they know, who they are, what they want to see or hear, how they are situated. Clarify your audience's background, context, and environment. Never, never, never write without identifying your audience first.
LETTERS
BUSINESS LETTERS
Business letters are common types of business correspondence, and we are all familiar with them. However, they are unique forms of communication and differ from business memos in several important ways:
Letters circulate outside the organization, rather than remaining within an organization.
Letters can communicate sensitive messages (information to which the reader may react emotionally) and, therefore, do not have direct organizational patterns. In this case, they are circumspect rather than getting right to the point.
Letters can also be written with the purpose to persuade or convince the reader and may not have direct organizational patterns. In this case, they are circumspect, also.
Note that in the example above, all the elements of the letter except the logo are on the left side of the page. Your company name and address; the recipient's name, title, company, and address; the letter's main text; the sender's typed name and title; and the attachment, enclosures, cc. are all single-spaced. You double-space or triple-space between your company's address and the date. You double-space or triple-space between the date and the recipient's name, between the recipient's address and salutation, and between the salutation and the letter's main text. You also double space or triple-space between the letter's main text and the closing (which is usually the word "sincerely"). Leave about four lines for your written signature, and double-space or triple-space between your title and the ending lines. The main text always single-spaced. Each paragraph is not indented but begins at the left margin. Double-space between the paragraphs.
Decisions:
Many business letters are written to inform the reader about a decision--improving past decisions, making current decisions, or planning future decisions. Primary to writing about a decision is the task of defining the focal issue--defining what is, was, or will be decided. When the focal issue is too large, there are too many options available, and it will be difficult to write about. If the focal issue is too small, it may be impossible to persuade your readers to agree with you. Secondary to writing defining the focal issue is to write about the alternative courses of action. These alternatives must agree with the focal issue (that is, they must be possible solutions to the problem). Finally, you must write a compelling argument for the one course of action decided upon or recommended with the selection reasons clear.
When writing about a decision, include the following:
- an overview that clearly defines the focal issue
- all necessary background information--including the relevant alternatives
- clear discussion of the merits of the alternatives
- a compelling recommendation for one course of action with clear reasons for selection
CREATING VISUALS
Using visuals in business writing is the embodiment of the old adage, "a picture is worth a thousand words." Visuals consist of tables and figures which are used to visually represent information in a vivid, easily understood manner. Visuals emphasize material and can present material more compactly and with less repetition than text. Tables are numbers or words arranged in rows and columns; figures are everything else.
Creating good visuals depends on always following these rules:
Check the source of the data
Determine the story you want your visuals to tell
Select the correct visual to tell the story
Follow the conventions when creating visuals
Use color and decoration with restraint
Make sure the visual is accurate
TABLES
Tables are used when the reader must identify exact values. Tables arrange data in a manner that makes them easy to read and understand. Table identification and title are placed above the table. Source information and any notes are below the table.
Table 1: 2000 Sales by Region (thousands of dollars)
North / South / East / West1st Quarter / 25.56 / 30.04 / 45.55 / 53.21
2nd Quarter / 34.55 / 42.31 / 59.44 / 68.67
3rd Quarter / 45.56 / 65.44 / 84.22 / 87.23
4th Quarter / 75.66 / 83.76 / 75.99 / 54.28
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Note: The above data and source are purely fictional and do not reflect reality.
PIE CHARTS
Pie Charts compare parts to a whole and can show percentages.
Figure 1: Regional Sales
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
BAR CHARTS
Bar Charts compare one item to another, compare items to one another, compare items over time, identify values, or show frequency.
Grouped bar charts compare several aspects of each item:
Figure 2: Travel Expenses
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Deviation bar charts show negative and positive values:
Figure 3: Regional Sales
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Segmented, subdivided, or stacked bars sum the components of an item:
Figure 4: Regional Sales
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Bar charts can also show frequency:
Figure 5: Sales Representatives' Experience
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Paired bar charts show the correlation between items:
Figure 6: Show Attendance Comparison
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Histograms or pictograms use pictures or images to create bars:
Figure 7: Salary Comparison by Region
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
LINE GRAPHS
Line Graphs compare items over time, show frequency or correlation, or show trends.
Figure 8: Regional Sales
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
A dot chart shows distributions or correlation.
Figure 9: Sales Rep/Sales Comparison
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
PHOTOGRAPHS, DRAWINGS, MAPS AND GANNT CHARTS
Photographs can show an item in use and create a sense of authenticity, and drawings show dimensions and can emphasize detail.
Figure 10: Writing Center Photograph
Source: Donna Shaw, Oregon State University, Writing Center
Figure 11: Example of a Drawing
Source: Microsoft clip art.
Maps emphasize location.
Figure 12: Example of a Map
Source: Microsoft clip art.
Gannt charts illustrate time lines for proposals and projects.
Figure 13: Time Line for Project Component Completion
Source: Sales by Force: How to Sell Anyone Anything by Donna L. Shaw, 1932. Printed with permission.
Some Rules of Thumb:
In a document, refer to visuals with their titles and numbers: Table 1. How the Sales Staff Allocates Its Time or Figure 3. The Rising Cost of Mistakes. Capitalize the word Figure, Table, Chart, etc. Under the visual include information about the source of the data used in the visual and any notes.
When creating tables, use common, understandable units and round off to simplify the data. Provide column and row totals or averages when relevant. Put the items you want your readers to compare in columns rather than in rows to help with mental subtraction and division. When you have many rows, shade alternate rows to help your reader line up items correctly.
When creating a pie chart, start at 12 o'clock with the largest percentage or the percentage you want to focus on. Make the chart a perfect circle; perspective circles can distort data. Try to limit the number of wedges to no more than seven. Label the wedges outside the circle; internal labels are very hard to read.
Bar charts should have the bars ordered by logic or chronology. Put the bars close enough together to make comparisons easy. Label both horizontal and vertical axes. You can label the bars either in the inside or on the outside. Make all bars the same width and use different colors only when the bars are representing different things. Avoid using perspective; perspective makes the values harder to read.
Line graphs should have both horizontal and vertical axes labeled. When time is a variable, make it the horizontal axis. Try to avoid more than three different lines on a graph. Avoid perspective.
Dot charts show correlation and large data sets. Label both axes. Keep the dots fairly small.
Color is often unnecessary in maps. Label the elements that readers must identify. Avoid using perspective; it makes the values and locations hard to read.
Gannt charts are often used in proposals. Customarily, bars are filled in when a task is completed, red outlines indicate critical activities that must be completed on time, and diamonds or other characters indicate progress reports, major achievements, or other accomplishments.
Be sure to refer to every visual in your text and embed your visual in the text as close to the reference as you can. You may summarize the main point of the visual in your text, but you must not repeat the visual's data (to do so makes the visual redundant and unnecessary). How much you discuss the visual depends upon your audience, the complexity of the visual, and the importance of the point it makes.
PROPOSALS
Proposals come under many different guises. They range from casual, one-page memos to multiple-volume, lengthy tomes that are hundreds of pages long. Usually a proposal is a document written by a person, business, or agency who wishes to perform a job or solve a problem for another person, business, or agency and receive funding or money for the proposed task. Despite the differences, though, all proposals have one thing in common; they are all suggest performing or make a request to perform a particular task or project.
Quite often proposals are written in response to a formal or casual request--an RFP (request for proposals). The government and funding agencies frequently publish formal RFPs. These RFPs appear whenever there is money to be distributed for research or when tasks need to be performed. Formal RFPs give the guidelines for the finished proposal, telling the proposal writers what needs to be included in the proposal and sometimes outline the proposal's format. Proposal writers follow the guidelines and fill in the details and expenses of the job. Sadly, many worthy proposals fail because they do not follow the published guidelines of the RFP institution.
The degree of formality of a proposal is in direct proportion to the situation that gives rise to it. When writing a proposal, you must be very careful to write as formal and complete a proposal as the situation call for. Incidentally, proposals are not always in response to a request; they can be originated by the proposal writer in response to an observed need.
Proposals differ from most other business and technical writing in one important way--they deal with the future and with things and conditions that do not exist. Writing about what does not exist can be tricky. Further complicating the difficulty of writing proposals is the additional issue that proposals must be very convincing. Proposals must convince the reader that there is a situation or problem and that the proposal writer is the best person to solve the problem or repair the situation. A final issue that proposal writers must face is the idea that, more often than not, proposals are legally binding offers.