1. Why Do You Think Rick Was Let Go? How Does Reinforcement Theory Apply to This Situation?

CHAPTER 3

CASE QUESTIONS

1. Why do you think Rick was let go? How does reinforcement theory apply to this situation?

Issues for Analysis: Rick was let go because his ideas could not be introduced in a manner in which the other managers were not threatened. It seemed that only Val was made aware of the reasoning behind the changes while the other managers who were threatened by the thought of change were only left to make assumptions. PPP seemed to have a culture in which all of the managers, except Val, were fearful of change and did not see the necessity of change. Rosie & Walter seemed to have a fear of the unknown; Rosie also seemed to have a fear of incompetence. Diane seemed to have a fear of lost influence. From a reinforcement perspective, it would be expected that Rick experienced punishment (being let go), so there would be a decreased likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future. In this situation Rick will probably consider his behavior, the implementation of his MBA education into the “real world,” as the behavior that was punished. From reinforcement theory it is likely that Rick in his next job will be less likely to try and make changes.

2. Explain Rosie and Walter’s reaction to Rick’s computer in terms of resistance to change. How might Rick have used the concepts in this chapter to approach the computer situation so as to gain acceptance?

Issues for Analysis: Rosie and Walter’s reaction to Rick’s computer was one of resistance to change. They neither recognized the need to know new technology nor its potential value, and certainly had little readiness to learn. Both Rosie and Walter had become used to doing things without technological assistance. Now that the market was becoming more competitive instead of looking for new ways of doings things, they were clinging to the ways things were done before. Rick and Val did not do enough to ready them for the necessary change nor did they, in a non-threatening manner, show them the value of change. Rick needed to look at the factors that create resistance to change and determine to what extent they applied to the key people at PPP. Fear of the unknown, incompetence, loss of rewards, lost influence, and lost investments as well as the group dynamics factors are all areas that Rick needed to address before attempting to introduce the computers.

3. Explain Rick’s inability to “fit in” using social learning theory. Where did the breakdowns occur?

Issues for Analysis: Rick’s inability to fit in was a result of the behaviors he modeled. Instead of observing the others around him and how they behaved to fit in the organization, he appeared to use Val as his sole referent other. At the attention level of social learning theory, Rick’s attention became focused on Val’s ideas of where the organization was to go and to a much less degree, recognized the other managers concerns. At the retention level Rick only appeared to retain the information coming from Val; the information from the other managers was not as important to Rick. Finally at the behavioral reproduction level, Rick demonstrated the behaviors that were acceptable to Val but were seen as threatening and unacceptable to the other managers.

4. If Val hired you to develop a management training program for the senior managers at PPP, how would you go about designing the program? Provide appropriate theoretical rationale to support your position.

Issues for Analysis: The first step in designing a management training program for the senior managers at PPP would be a total organizational analysis. Unless you want to face similar resistance and possibly the same outcome as Rick, you must be able to show the relevance and value of the training. The senior managers seem highly resistant to change so it must be demonstrated to them that there is a necessity to change. The information provided by an organizational analysis will help provide the information needed to convince senior management of the importance of training and change at PPP. Once this has been done a person analysis must be undertaken and training provided to those employees that need training.

EXERCISES

1. The following steps provide practice in implementing a Social Learning Strategy

1. In consultation with a friend, coworker, or fellow student identify a target behavior they don’t currently have, but would like to be able to do.
2. Develop a social learning strategy for them to acquire that behavior.
3. Implement the strategy.
4. In small groups or with the entire class describe what you tried to do and what happened.

Tips: This is a long and difficult exercise if done correctly. It may be necessary to provide an incentive for students such as a grade. The results however are well worth it, as it becomes a good example of how to modify behavior. One way to make it easier is to have a team identify one member who wants to change some aspect of their behavior. All team members can then develop and implement the strategy focused on the one student.Team meetings become a place for working on the change, although the interaction with each of the team members in class and in other venues will also provide opportunities to impact the behavior change. Be sure to keep the team focused on the components of the Social Learning theory (cognitive as well as behavioral).

2. In groups of four to six people, discuss the differences among you that would affect the kind of training you would prefer. Use Figure 3-6 on page 82 to start your discussion, but do not limit it to only those characteristics. What accounts for the differences and similarities amongst your group?

Tips: Although this exercise may seem easy, you might want to give some examples of how you as a professor feel about some of the factors identified in Figure 3-6 and identify other factors such as personality types/preferences (e.g., Meyers-Briggs) learning style, etc. to show them you expect more than just those in the Table. As an example, point out that “Goal Orientation” is a new factor in the literature that seems to impact motivation to learn. Undergraduates may have difficulty with identifying factors other than those listed in the table, whereas graduate students should be able to do this on their own.

3. Observe an introductory course in computer programming. Then observe an introductory course in art or music. Which course uses a more behavioral and which uses a more cognitive approach to learning? If possible interview the instructors to find out why they use the approach they do. Describe the match between the instructional approach and the subject matter.

Tips: If you wish to make the exercise shorter, and you have students with different majors in your course, you could have them report on their views of the issue.

4. Use the following to see how expectancy theory explains differences in student motivation.

1. In a small group discuss the most important outcome you want to achieve in this class (it may or may not be a letter grade). Have each person indicate how valuable that outcome is to them using a scale from 1= not at all desirable to 10= extremely desirable.
2. After a person has described their most important outcome, have them indicate how motivated they are to achieve this compared to the other things they want to do this term (use a scale of 1= not at all motivated to 10= extremely motivated).
3. Then have the person describe the things they will have to do (performance level) in order to achieve that outcome.
4. Next, have them indicate their Expectancy 1 level (their belief that they will successfully reach the performance level). Then, have them describe their Expectancy 2 (the likelihood that successful performance will result in reaching the outcome). Use probabilities (e.g., .1= very unlikely, .5= 50% chance of happening, .9= very likely) to reflect expectancies.
5. After everyone has completed step D, examine the expectancy linkages to see how well they conform to the person’s level of motivation. Discuss any discrepancies and why they exist.

Tips: Many students have trouble understanding expectancy theory. So, if you do this exercise it is useful to first give them an example (perhaps of your own situation) where they can walk through it with you. You could also use the example in the text, but it would be better to provide them with an original one that started from the beginning. They could observe how you go through the thought process as you move from A though D.

5. This exercise is for those who are working together on a project. Without conversation among the members of the group, write a list of the group’s norms for performance on the project. When you are done, indicate whether you follow each of the norms and why. Once everyone has finished the tasks above, collect all the responses and mix them up. Then hand them out. Allow each person to read the responses they received and compile the responses on a flip chart. Once all responses have been read, discuss the implications of your group’s perception of performance norms.

Tips: This exercise is designed to both demonstrate the effects of group dynamics, to provide motivation to comply with team norms and to build consensus on team norms. A difference in beliefs about group norms demonstrates to the group how individual assumptions determine how group norms are interpreted. The degree to which people follow the norms they believe to exist will depend on the motivational forces acting on the person to conform. This allows the group to examine what types of intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes are associated with following or not following the norms. The exercise demonstrates the value of explicitly stating important group norms and assigning clear outcomes for not following the norms. This is likely to be a long exercise and it might be assigned as an out of class activity with the class portion a discussion of each group’s experience in the exercise and what changes occurred in the group as a result. The entire process should result in improving the group’s ability to successfully complete the project.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. Explain the behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning. Which is most relevant to training? Explain your answer.

The behaviorist approach to learning defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior. Thus, from a behavioral perspective the environment controls learning. The cognitive approach defines learning as relatively permanent changes in how information is processed, organized, and stored. Which approach is best depends on the learning situation.

2. You’re a trainer who is explaining expectancy theory to a group of managers so they can better understand and deal with employee motivation problems. One of the managers says, “I don’t have time for this theory stuff. I want real world training that helps me in my job.” How would you respond to the trainee? What is your rationale for your response?

If a trainer receives such negative feedback it is possible that the trainer is not focusing his/her training program at the right level. The trainer must show the managers how the theory can and is applied in the “real world,” and preferably in the trainees “real world.” Of course it would be better to avoid such a response; trainers can do this by having some basic knowledge of the trainees’ environment and being able to lead trainees through an example that applies to the trainees’ working environment and/or experiences.

3. List the nine events of instruction as identified by Gagne-Briggs, and indicate how you would use them in a training situation.

The nine events of instruction are listed in Table 3-5. An example of how these are used is provided in Table 3-6. You should instruct students to provide examples that are different from those provided in the chapter.

4. Explain why different people need different training methods.

Different people require different training methods because there can be large individual learning differences. Examples of this can be (1) considerable differences in knowledge, skills, and attitudes, as well as (2) the differences in the characteristics of instrumentality, skepticism, resistance to change, attention span, expectation level, dominant needs, absorption needs, and topical interest.

5. How does a work group have control over the performance of a worker? Provide a rationale for why this “power” is a positive or negative thing?

The power of the group comes from rewards the group gives to members that follow group norms, or punishment it gives to those who do not. Group dynamics can be used to support high or low performance. Norms that are developed in line with organizational goals support higher performance.

6. How can training be designed to motivate learning and accommodate trainee differences?

1. Identify the types of individual learning strengths and problems and tailor the training around these
2. Align learning objectives to organizational goals
3. Clearly define program goals and objectives at the start
4. Actively engage the trainee, thus maximizing attention, expectations, and memory
5. Use a systematic, logically connected sequencing of learning activities so that trainees have mastered lower levels of learning before moving to higher levels
6. Use a variety of training methods
7. Use realistic job- or life-relevant training material
8. Allow trainees to work together and share experiences
9. Provide constant feedback and reinforcement while encouraging self-assessment