Chapter 8 Conditioning and Learning
1
CHAPTER 8 CONDITIONING AND LEARNING
I. What is Learning?
A. Vocabulary
1. learning – any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience.
2. reinforcement – any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur.
3. response – any identifiable behavior.
4. antecedents – events that precede a response.
5. consequences – effects that follow a response.
B. Classical conditioning – a form of learning in which reflex (an innate, automatic response to a stimulus, e.g., eye blink) responses are associated with new stimuli.
C. Operant conditioning – learning based on the consequences of responding.
II. Classical Conditioning
A. Pavlov’s Experiment
1. neutral stimulus – stimulus that does not evoke a response
2. conditioned stimulus – stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly pair with an unconditioned stimulus.
3. unconditioned stimulus – stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response.
4. unconditioned response – innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
5. conditioned response – learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
III. Principles of Classical Conditioning
A. Vocabulary
1. acquisition – period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.
2. respondent reinforcement – reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a conditioned stimulus.
3. higher order conditioning – classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning; i.e., CS is used as if it were a US.
4. informational view – perspective that explains learning in terms of information imparted by events in the environment, i.e., we look for associations among events.
5. expectancy – an anticipation concerning future events or relationships.
6. extinction – the weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement.
7. spontaneous recovery – the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.
8. stimulus generalization – tendency to respond to stimuli similar to, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus.
9. stimulus discrimination – learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.
IV. Classical Conditioning in Humans
A. Learned Fears
1. phobia – an intense and unrealistic fear of some specific object or situation.
2. conditioned emotional response – an emotional response that has been linked to a previously non-emotional stimulus by classical conditioning.
3. vicarious classical conditioning – classical conditioning brought about by observing another person react to a particular stimulus.
V. Operant Conditioning – learning based on the consequences of responding.
A. Vocabulary
1. law of effect – responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not.
2. operant reinforcer – any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows.
3. conditioning chamber – an apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals; a Skinner box.
4. response-contingent reinforcement – reinforcement given only when a particular response is made.
5. response chaining – the assembly separate responses into a series of actions that lead to reinforcement.
6. superstitious behavior – a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary.
7. shaping – gradually molding responses to a final desire pattern.
8. successive approximations – a series of steps or ever-closer matches to a desire response pattern.
9. operant extinction – the weakening or disappearance of non-reinforced operant response.
10. negative attention seeking – using misbehavior to gain attention.
11. positive reinforcement – occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.
12. negative reinforcement – occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.
13. punishment – any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again.
14. response cost – removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.
VI. Operant Reinforcers
A. Vocabulary
1. primary reinforcers – nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological need.
2. intracranial stimulation – direct electrical stimulation and activation of brain tissue.
3. secondary reinforcer – learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer.
4. social reinforcers – reinforcers, i.e., attention and approval, provided by other people.
5. token reinforcers – a tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker, etc.
6. feedback – information returned to a person about the effects a response has had; also know as knowledge of the results.
7. programmed instruction – any learning format that presents information in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback to learners.
8. computer-assisted instruction (CAI) – learning aided by computer-presented information, exercises, and feedback.
9. drill and practice – a basic CAI format, typically consisting of questions and answers.
10. instructional games – educational computer programs designed to resemble games to motivate learning.
11. educational simulation – computer programs that simulate real-world settings or situations to promote learning.
12. interactive multimedia instruction – computerized instruction that combines text, sounds videos, and interactive exercises.
VII. Partial Reinforcement
A. Vocabulary
1. schedule of reinforcement – a rule/plan for determining which responses will be reinforced.
2. continuous reinforcement – schedule in which every correct response is followed by a reinforcer.
3. partial reinforcement – a pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced.
4. partial reinforcement effect – responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.
B. Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
1. fixed ratio schedule – a set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer, e.g., reinforcer is given for every 4 correct responses.
2. variable ratio schedule – a varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer, e.g., reinforcer is given after 3, then 7 correct responses (number changes randomly).
3. fixed interval schedule – reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses given during the time interval are not reinforced (even if correct).
4. variable interval schedule – reinforcer is given for the 1st correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.
VIII. Stimulus Light
A. Vocabulary
1. stimulus control – stimuli present when an operant response is acquired to tend to control when and where the response is made.
2. operant stimulus generalization – tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement.
3. operant stimulus discrimination – tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with nonreward are present.
4. discriminative stimuli – stimuli that precede rewarded and nonrewarded responses in operant conditioning.
IX. Punishment
A. Vocabulary
1. punishment – process of suppressing a response.
2. punisher – any event that decreases the probability or frequency ore responses it follows.
3. severe punishment – intense punishment; punishment capable of suppressing a response for long periods.
4. mild punishment – punishment that has a relatively weak effect, especially punishment that only temporarily slows responding.
5. aversive stimulus – a stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable.
6. escape learning – learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus.
7. avoidance learning – learning to make a response in order to postpone or present discomfort.
X. Cognitive Learning
A. Vocabulary
1. cognitive learning – higher level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation.
2. cognitive map – internal images or other mental representations of an area (maze, city, campus, etc.) that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal.
3. latent learning – learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided.
4. rote learning – learning that takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules.
5. discovery learning – learning based on insight and understanding.
XI. Modeling
A. Observational Learning – learning achieved by watching an imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.
1. model – person who serves as an example in observational learning.
B. Television