Section II Models

Section II Models

Section II Models

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DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULUM: CHALLENGING HIGH-END LEARNERS: ADDRESSING OREGON STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS
Differentiated Curriculum:

CHALLENGINGHIGH-END LEARNERS:

ADDRESSINGOREGON

STANDARDSANDBENCHMARKS

SECTIONII

MODELS

OREGONDEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION

OFFICEOFSPECIALEDUCATION

TALENTEDANDGIFTED

2003

Revised 2005 and 2009

DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULUM: CHALLENGING HIGH-END LEARNERS: ADDRESSING OREGON STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS
TableofContents
Models
Page Number
Models / 3
Elements of Thought – R. Paul / 4
Elements of Reasoning-Paul and Elder / 6
Questions to Guide Intellectual Thinking / 8
Virginia’s Standards of learning-Paul’s Models / 9
Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain / 10
TABA Questioning Strategy Design / 11
Questioning Strategies for Induction from Hilda Taba / 12
Problem Solving / 13
Types of Thinking / 14
A Range of Questions-Closed and Open-Ended / 15
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DIFFERENTIATEDCURRICULUM: CHALLENGING HIGH-END LEARNERS: ADDRESSING OREGON STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS
MODELS


Modeln 1: a simplified description of a complex entity or process.
Source: WordNet®1.6,©1997PrincetonUniversity Featured in this section are exemplarymodelsfor complex thinking, reasoning and learning processes. Student activities need to be intellectually demanding, challenging them by requiring a higher level of response or by open-ended questions that stimulate inquiry, industrious exploration, and purposeful discovery.
Teachers need to encourage students to think about subjects in more abstract and complex ways, to stimulate and encourage higher level thinking skillsandtopromote self-directedlearning.
Significant contributors whose models are briefly mentioned within this section are Richard Paul, Linda Elder, Benjamin Bloom, Hilda Taba,E. P. Torrance and Sidney Parnes.
~JackieBuisman
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ELEMENTSOFTHOUGHT—R. PAUL
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Eight elementsof thought identifiedby RichardPaul (1992) arethe basic building blocksofproductivethinking.Workingtogether,theyprovide agenerallogic toreasoning.Inliterature interpretationandlistening,theyhelp onemakesenseofthe reasoningoftheauthororspeaker.Inwriting andspeaking, they enable authors or speakers tostrengthentheirarguments.
Students areoftenaskedtodistinguishbetweenfactsandopinions.However,between pure opinion andhardfacts lie reasonedjudgmentsinwhich beliefs aresup- ported byreasons.Instructioninthisareaneeds to beincluded inall formsof communicationinthelanguagearts.
Teachersmayusetheelements toassistincrafting questions forclass discussion of literatureor questionsforprobingstudent thinking. Examples ofsuchquestionsare givenonthe WheelofReasoningthatfollowsthedescriptionsbelow.
The eightelementsofreasoningareasfollows:
Purpose, Goal,or EndView
Wereason toachievesome objective,tosatisfyadesire,tofulfillsome need.For example,ifthecardoesnotstartinthemorning,thepurpose ofmyreasoningis to figure outawaytogettowork.Onesource ofproblemsin reasoningistraceableto "defects"atthelevelofpurposeor goal.If ourgoal itselfisunrealistic,contradictoryto othergoalswehave, confusedormuddled insomeway, thenthereasoning weusetoachieveitisproblematic.If weareclear onthe purposeforourwriting andspeaking,itwillhelpfocusthemessageina coherent direction. Thepurposein ourreasoningmightbeto persuade others. Whenwe readand listen,weshouldbe ableto determinetheauthor's orspeaker'spurpose.
QuestionatIssue (orProblemto Be Solved)
When weattempt toreasonsomethingout,thereisat leastonequestionatissueor problemto be solved(if not, there is noreasoningrequired).If weare notclear aboutwhatthequestionorproblemis,itis unlikelythat wewillfinda reasonable answer,oronethatwillserveourpurpose.Aspartofthereasoningprocess,we shouldbeableto formulate thequestion to beanswered ortheissuetobeaddressed. / Forexample,whywon'tthecarstart?Or shouldlibrariescensor materials thatcontain objectionable language?
Points of View or Frame of Reference
Aswetake onanissue, weareinfluenced byourown point ofview.Forexample, parentsof youngchildrenandlibrarians mighthavedifferent points ofviewoncensorshipissues.The priceofashirtmayseemlowtoonepersonwhile it seemshigh to anotherbecause ofadifferent frame ofreference. Anydefect in our point of vieworframeofreference is apossiblesourceofproblems inourreasoning.Our pointofview maybe toonarrow,maynotbepreciseenough,maybeunfairlybiased,andsoforth.Byconsideringmultiplepoints ofview,wemaysharpenor broadenourthinking.Inwritingandspeaking,wemaystrengthenourarguments by acknowledging other pointsofview. Inlistening andreading,weneedtoidentify the perspective ofthespeaker or author
and understandhow itaffects the message delivered.
Experiences, Data,Evidence
Whenwereason, wemust beableto supportour pointofviewwith reasonsor evidence. Evidence isimportant in ordertodistinguish opinionsfromreasons or tocreatea reasonedjudgment.Evidenceanddata should supporttheauthor'sor speaker's point ofviewand can strengthenan argument. An example isdatafrom surveysorpublished studies.Inreadingandlistening,wecanevaluatethe strength ofan argument orthe validity ofastatementbyexamining thesupporting dataorevidence. Experiences canalsocontributetothedata ofourreasoning. For example, previous experiences intryingtogetacartostartmaycontributeto thereasoningprocessthatisnecessaryto
resolvetheproblem.
ConceptsandIdeas
Reasoningrequires the understanding and useofconceptsandideas(including definitional terms, principles,rules,ortheories). Whenwe read and listen,we can ask ourselves,"What are thekey ideas presented?" When wewrite and speak, we can
examineandorganizeourthoughtsaroundthesubstanceofconcepts and ideas.Someexamplesofconceptsarefreedom,friendship,andresponsibility.
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ELEMENTSOFTHOUGHT—R. PAUL
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Assumptions
Weneedto take some thingsforgrantedwhenwe reason.We needtobeawareof theassumptionswehavemadeand the assumptions ofothers.Ifwemakefaulty assumptions, this canleadtodefects in reasoning. Asawriter or speaker wemake assumptions about ouraudienceand ourmessage.For example, wemight assume thatotherswillshareourpointofview;orwemight assumethat the audience is familiar withthe FirstAmendmentwhenwe referto "First Amendmentrights."As a readerorlistener weshould beabletoidentifythe assumptions ofthe writer or speaker.
Inferences
Reasoningproceedsbystepscalledinferences.Aninferenceisasmallstepofthe mind,inwhichapersonconcludesthatsomethingissobecauseofsomethingelse being so orseemingtobe so. Thetentative conclusions (inferences)wemakedependsonwhatweassumeasweattempttomakesenseofwhatisgoingonaround us.For example,we see darkclouds and inferthatitisgoingtorain; or weknow themovie startsat7:00;itis now6:45;ittakes 30minutes toget to thetheater; so wecannotgetthereontime.Manyofourinferences arejustifiedandreasonable, butmanyare not.We needto distinguishbetween theraw dataofour experiences andourinterpretationsofthoseexperiences(inferences).Also,theinferenceswe make areheavily influenced byourpoint ofview and our assumptions.
ImplicationsandConsequences
Whenwereasonina certaindirection,weneed to lookat the consequences of that direction. Whenwe argueand supporta certainpointofview, solid reasoningre- quiresthatwe consider what the implications areoffollowingthatpath;whataretheconsequencesoftaking the coursethatwesupport? Whenwe read or listen toanargument,weneedto askourselveswhatfollowsfromthatwayofthinking.Wecan also considerconsequences ofactions that charactersin stories take.For example, ifI don'tdomyhomework,Iwillhavetostayafterschooltodoit;ifIwaterthe lawn, itwillnotwither inthe summerheat. / AdaptedfromPaul,R.(1992).Criticalthinking:Whateverypersonneedsto surviveinarapidlychangingworld.Sonoma,CA:FoundationforCritical Thinking.
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PAULANDELDER’SELEMENTSOFREASONING
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TheElementsof Reasoning
Teacherssometimesstrugglewithcraftinggoodcritical thinkingquestionsthatget at theheartoftheproblem.RichardPaulandLindaElderfromtheFoundation ofCriticalThinkingdevelopedtheElementsofReasoningtoaddress theunderlyingelementsof logicaland criticalthinking.Althoughyoumaywanttoaddsome ofyourown,theeightelementstheyidentifiedareexcellent.Goodcriticalthinkingquestionsarethefallout ofconsideringtheElements.Belowisabriefoutlineof PaulandElder'sElementsofReasoning.
  1. What are thefundamentalgoals andobjectives of thelesson?
  1. What isthequestionorproblematissueyouaretrying to answer orsolve?
  1. Whatinformationordatadoyouneedtoanswerthe problem or issue?
  1. What isthe information or datatellingyou?What inferences andinterpretations canyou legitimately make?
  1. What are theimplicationsorconsequences of your thinking(whatfollowsfrom thinkingthisratherthan that)?
  1. Whatare thekeyideasor concepts thatwillhelp you answer the questionorsolve the problem?
  1. Whatareyourassumptions(shouldyoubetaking thisor that for granted)?
  1. Areyouadoptingthemostreasonablepointof view withrespecttothe issue?
/ AnnotatedfromRichardPaulandLindaElder’s "CriticalThinking: TeachingStudentsToSeekthe Logic ofThings"
UniversalIntellectualStandards
Studentsshouldbetaughtwhatintellectualstandards forwhichtheyareheldaccountable.RichardPauland LindaElderoftheFoundationforCriticalThinking haveidentifiedeightstandardsstudentsshould learn.Youmaywanttoaddsomeofyourown,butbe carefulthatyourfinallistofstandardsisshortenough forstudentstograpplewith--thisisanothervenue where"less can be more."
BelowarePaulandElder'slistofUniversalIntellectual Standards.
Clarity-Couldyou elaboratefurther? Couldyouillustrate whatyoumean? Couldyougive meanexample? Accuracy-How couldwe checkon that? Howcouldwefindoutifthatis true? Howcouldweverifyor testthat?
Precision-Couldyoubemorespecific? Couldyougive memoredetails? Couldyoubemoreexact?
Relevance-How doesthat relate to theproblem? Howdoesthat bearonthequestion? Howdoesthathelpuswiththe issue?
Depth-What factorsmakethisadifficult problem? What aresome ofthe complexitiesofthisquestion? What aresome ofthe difficulties weneedto deal with? / Breadth-Dowe needtolookatthis fromanotherperspective?
Do weneedto consideranother point ofview? Do weneedto lookat thisinotherways?
Logic-Doesall this make sensetogether? Doesyourfirstparagraphfitinwithyour last? Doeswhatyousay follow fromthe evidence?
Significance-Isthisthe mostimportantproblemto consider? Isthis thecentralideatofocuson? Whichofthesefacts arethemostimportant?
Incorporating Bloom'sTaxonomy
TheTeachingforThinkingtechniquedependsonthe teacherthinkingcriticallyabouthisorherlessonand posingquestionsthatmovestudentsbeyondbasicfact recall.An indicationthat alesson has toomanyrecallquestionsandnotenoughhigherlevelquestionsarethereactionsof yourstudents.Havingtoanswer60- plusrecallquestionsinalessonisnotveryinteresting,challengingorexciting.Ifyourstudentsarebored, examinethelevelofquestionsyouask.Besureto moveintotheupperlevelsofBloom'staxonomyto challengestudents tothink.
Bloom'sTaxonomy
  1. Knowledge:arrange, define, duplicate,how, how much,label,list,memorize,name,order, recognize,relate,recall,repeat,reproduce, state,who,what,why,when.
  2. Comprehension:classify, demonstrate, describe, discuss,explain, express, identify,indicate,infer,judge,locate,recognize,report, restate, review, select, translate.

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PAULANDELDER’SELEMENTSOFREASONING
CONTINUEDPAGE2
  1. Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize,employ, explain, illustrate,interpret,operate,practice,predict, schedule,show, sketch, solve, summarize, use, write,“whatwouldhappenif?”
  1. Analysis:analyze,appraise,testcalculate, categorize,compare, contrast, criticize,differentiate,discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question,“whatconclusions canyou make?”
  1. Synthesis:arrange,assemble,collect,com- pose,construct,create,design,develop,formulate, “howwouldyou test.” manage,organize, plan,prepare,propose,setup,write.
  1. Evaluation:appraise,argue,assess,attach, choosecompare, defend, estimate, findtheerrors,judge,predict,rate,core,select,support, value,evaluate.
NowAdd Socratic Questioning
BasicQuestioning TechniqueUsed inTeachingfor Thinking
Studentscanreadthematerial aloud,aparagraphor blockoftextata time,(ifage andlessonappropriate) or they can be questioned overmaterialthathas beenas- signedortheyhavelearnedpreviously.
Visualmaterials(maps,graphs,tables,etc.)are studied bystudentsforafew minutes before questioning.
Questionsareasked thathelpstudents make sense of theinformationorconcept -identifyingthegoal,recognizingthekeyquestionorproblem,identifyingandanalyzingthepertinent information,identifyingthe concepts / anddefinitionsused,analyzingtheassumptions made,analyzingthepoint ofview,comparing,explaining,inferring, analogies, sequencing.
Questionsareasked thathelpstudentsapply,extendand evaluatetheconceptsor principles-forecasting,generalizing,recognizingimplicationsand consequences, judging,predicting,constructing,generalizing,hypothesizing,extrapolating.
Reviewquestionsareaskedtoreviewconcepts,evaluatestudentjudgments,andthe mainideasofthe les- sons.
Allstudentsparticipate -evenifstudentsdonothave theirhandsup.
Students are called onrandomly.
"Idon'tknow"is notanacceptable answer-teacherre- directs, restatesthe question, has anotherstudentanswer andhasthefirst student summarizethat answer,or comes backtothe student with anotherquestion later in thelesson.
The name ofthe student comes atthe endof thequestion.
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QUESTIONSTOGUIDEINTELLECTUALTHINKING
CONTINUEDPAGE2
RICHARDPAULANDLINDAELDER'SLISTOF
UNIVERSALINTELLECTUALSTANDARDS STUDENTS SHOULD LEARN

Clarity / Depth
Couldyou elaborate further? / What factors make this a difficult problem?
Couldyou illustrate whatyoumean? / What are some of the complexities of this question?
Couldyou give me anexample? / Whataresome of thedifficultiesweneedtodealwith?
Accuracy / Breadth
How could we check on that? / Do we need to look at this from another perspective?
How could we find out if that is true? / Do we need to consider another point of view?
How could we verify or test that? / Do we need to look at this in other ways?
Precision / Logic
Couldyou bemore specific? / Does all this make sense together?
Couldyou givememore details? / Doesyour first paragraph fit in withyour last?
Couldyou bemore exact? / Does whatyou say follow from the evidence?
Relevance / Significance
How does that relate to the problem? / Is this the most important problem to consider?
How does that bear on the question? / Is this the central idea to focus on?
How does that help us with the issue? / Which of these facts are the most important?
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VIRGINIASTANDARDSOFLEARNINGALIGNMENT
WITHINSTRUCTIONALMODELS
PAUL'SMODELOFREASONING
SocialSciences / English/LanguageArts / Mathematics / Science
  • Historical analysis
  • Multipleperspectives
  • Understanding text-based sources (primaryandsecondary)
  • Persuasivewriting
/
  • Analyzeand interpretliterature
  • Usereasoningdevelopingwritten forms
  • Debate
  • Research projects
/
  • Qualitative comparisonsproblems
  • Interpretationofdatapresentations (e.g. graphs,charts)
  • Logic andreasoning
  • Problemsolving
/
  • Predicting
  • Hypothesizing
  • Inferring
  • Analyzingandevaluatingdata

PAUL'SMODELOFCONCEPTDEVELOPMENT
SocialSciences / English/LanguageArts / Mathematics / Science
  • Economic,legal,government,politicalsystem
  • Structure,functionandpatternof societal systems
  • Mapsassystems
  • Historyasthestudyofchange over time
/
  • Change inliteraryelements(e.g. character,plot,setting)
  • Writingprocess
  • Languagestudy
  • Grammarasa system
/
  • Pattern recognition andpattern making
  • Number systems
  • Use ofthe concepts of models and scale toconstructmathematical forms
  • Communication andconnections
/
  • Livingand earth/spacesystems
  • Cycles and patterns
  • Interactionswithandacross systems
  • Changeprocessesin biology, chemistry,physics,and geology.

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BLOOM'STAXONOMYOFTHECOGNITIVEDOMAIN
CategoriesintheCognitiveDomain

Knowledge ofterminology:
specific facts; waysand meansof dealing with specifics (conventions,trends and sequences, classificationsandcategories, criteria, methodology);universalsand abstractions in a field(principles and generalizations,theoriesandstructures): Knowledgeis(here)definedasthe remembering(recalling)ofappropriate, previously learned information.
Verbs:
defines; describes;enumerates;identifies; labels;lists; matches;names;reads; records; reproduces;selects;states;views. / Application::
Theuseofpreviouslylearnedinformationin newandconcretesituationsto solveproblems thathavesingleorbest answers.
Verbs: acts; administers; articulates; assesses; charts;collects;computes;constructs; contributes; controls;determines;develops; discovers; establishes; extends; implements; includes; informs; instructs; operationalizes; participates;predicts;prepares; preserves; produces;projects;provides;relates; reports; shows; solves;teaches; transfers;uses; utilizes. / Synthesis:
Creatively or divergentlyapplyingprior knowledge andskills toproduceanewor originalwhole.
Verbs: adapts;anticipates; categorizes; collaborates; combines;communicates; compares; compiles; composes;contrasts; creates;designs;devises;expresses; facilitates; formulates;generates; incorporates;individualizes;initiates; integrates;intervenes;models;modifies; negotiates;plans;progresses; rearranges; reconstructs; reinforces; reorganizes; revises; structures; substitutes; validates.
Comprehension:Grasping(understanding) themeaningofinformationalmaterials. Verbs: classifies; cites;converts; describes; discusses;estimates;explains;generalizes; givesexamples;makessense outof; paraphrases;restates(inownwords); summarizes; traces; understands. / Analysis
The breaking downofinformationalmaterials intotheircomponentparts,examining(and tryingtounderstand theorganizational structureof)suchinformationto develop divergent conclusionsbyidentifyingmotives or causes, making inferences,and/orfinding evidenceto support generalizations.
Verbs:breaksdown;correlates;diagrams; differentiates;discriminates;distinguishes; focuses; illustrates; infers; limits; outlines; pointsout;prioritizes;recognizes;separates; subdivides. / Evaluation:
Judgingthevalueofmaterialbasedon personalvalues/opinions,resultinginanend product,withagivenpurpose, withoutreal right or wronganswers.
Verbs: appraises; compares contrasts; concludes;criticizes;critiques;decides; defends;interprets; judges; justifies;reframes; supports.
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TABAQUESTIONINGSTRATEGYDESIGN
TABA QUESTIONING STRATEGY DESIGN
createdbyHilda Taba,based ontheworkofPiaget
Carefulquestioningcanbeusedtohelpstudentsatmanydifferentlevels andinmanydifferentclassesprogresstohigherlevels ofthinkingandunderstanding.Instructorscanplandiscussions,movingfromalevel ofsimplefactual understandingtodrawinginferences,applyinginformationto newsituations,andeventually to evaluating information.Whenquestioningagroup,alloweach person tocontribute justone response, inorderto involvemore people.
From I-CANS (Integrated-Curriculum forAchievingNecessarySkills)

Level of Question / ThinkingSkill / Sample Questions
How successful was it?D / DeductiveReasoning / Did it work?
Evaluation
Were theresultsas predicted?
InductiveReasoning / Application(eitherhypothetical oractual) / If ....then...?
Supposethat...?
Makinggeneralizations
(conceptualization) / Whatconclusionscanyoudraw?
Drawinginferencesabout
relationships / Whydo youthink...?
Affective Identification / Whatwas yourreaction to...?
How did it make you feel...?
FactualUnderstanding / Perception
CommonExperience/ Demonstration / What happened?
Whatdoyouknowabout...?
Whatdidyousee...?
Who...?
Where...?
When...?
Demonstratewhatoccurred,howto dosomething,andso on,using props, audio-visual aids,etc. HYPERLINK
/ TEACHERGUIDETOUSINGTABA
QUESTIONING STRATEGIES
Opening Question
(Allowsmanystudents to enter thediscussion):
Whatdidyou notice about thedistributionofpower amongthevariousgovernmentalentities?
Studentresponsesneedtobelistedonthe board.
Lifting Questions
(Directsstudentstolookfor relationshipsamong data):
Whatseems to be reflectedinthis information?
Whatmightbethereasonforthis decentralization?
Extension Questions
(Fostersthe development of ideas,giving a student a chancetodevelophisidea):
Whatmightbetheresultofthat? Well,tell mea littlemore.
QuestionstoLeadtoCombiningofIdeas and Making of Relevant Generalizations
Whatcanyousayisgenerallytrueaboutwhatwehave beentalkingabout?
Whatdoyou makeof allwe’vebeen saying here?
Whatwouldyou consideranimportant ideathatyou got fromthis?
ContributedbyMary Grayfrom
Linn Benton LincolnESD2003
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QUESTIONINGSTRATEGIESFORINDUCTIONFROMHILDATABA
CONCEPT FORMATION
OvertActivityCovert / Mental Operations / ElicitingQuestions
  1. Enumeration,listing
  2. Grouping
  3. Labeling,categorizing
/ Differentiation (identifyingseparate items)
Identifyingcommonproperties,abstracting
Determiningthe hierarchical orderof things(super-and subordination) / Whatdoyousee?hear?note?
Whatbelongstogether?Onwhatcriterion?
How wouldyou callthesegroups?What belongstowhat?
Source: Hilda Taba, Teacher'sHandbook forElementary SocialStudies(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1967)p. 92.
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
OvertActivity / Covert Mental Operations / ElicitingQuestions
  1. Identifyingcriticalrelationships
  2. Exploringrelationships
  1. Makinginferences
/ Differentiating
Relatingcategories toeachother Determiningcause-and-effectrelationships
Goingbeyondwhatisgiven Findingimplications,extrapolating / Whatdidyounotice?see? find?
Whydid thishappen?
Whatdoesthismean?Whatpicture does itcreateinyourmind?Whatcouldyou conclude?
Source:Hilda Taba, Teacher'sHandbook forElementary SocialStudies (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1967)p. 101.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
OvertActivity / CovertMentalOperations / ElicitingQuestions
  1. Predictingconsequences,explaining unfamiliar phenomena, hypothesizing
  2. Explainingand/orsupportingthe predictions andhypotheses
  3. Verifyingtheprediction
/ Analyzingthe natureoftheproblemor situation, retrieving relevant knowledge
Determining the causallinksleadingto prediction orhypothesis
Usinglogical principles orfactualknowledgetodeterminenecessaryandsufficientconditions / Whatwouldhappen if...?
Whydoyouthinkthiswouldhappen?
What would it take for this to be generally true orprobablytrue?
Source:Hilda Taba, Teacher'sHandbook for Elementary Social Studies (Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1967) p.109.
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PROBLEMSOLVING
The Creative Problem Solving Process
  • Focusing-Define,prioritize,focusand analyze problems
  • Idea Generating - Generating creativeand useful ideas, approachesand solutions
  • Decision Making-Makingthe bestpossible decision
  • Implementing-Ensure thatsolutionsareimplemented
Osborn-Parnes Five Stage CPS Model
  • FactFinding
  • ProblemFinding
  • IdeaFinding
  • SolutionFinding
  • AcceptanceFinding
Future Problem Solving
  • Ability to conductmeaningfulresearch
  • Concentration andpersistence
  • Divergentthinking
  • Teamwork
  • Convergentthinking
  • Elaboration
  • Clarityof writtenexpression
  • Independenceof thought
  • Making cause andeffectrelationships
  • Autonomyand accountability
  • Fluencyof thought(quantityof ideas)
  • Flexibilityofthought(varietyofideas)
  • Respectforthe abilitiesof others
  • Ability to organizeandfocus ontasks
  • Originality
  • Appreciation ofcomplexity
  • Evaluating ideas
  • Timemanagement
/ Future Problem Solving
FutureProblemSolvingisa strategyforhelpingstudents developskillsfor analyzingaproblem.Workingthrough asixstep processcanhelpthem decide- fromafuturesperspective- what shouldbedone abouta problem. The six steps are:
  • •identifyingpossible causesandeffectsofaproblem;
  • •identifyingtheunderlyingproblem;
  • •brainstorming potential solutions;
  • •developingcriteriaforevaluatingsolutions;
  • •evaluating allsolutionsto determinethe best one;and
  • •developinganactionplan.
Lookingformoreinformation?ResearchE.PaulTorranceandSid Parnes.
E.P.Torrance:HisLife,Accomplishments,andLegacyisatribute tothe renowned creativityresearcher, universityteacher,andmentortonumerous individualsthroughouttheworld.Thismonograph is presentedin
three sectionswhich include a discussionofTorrance'slife,followedby an overviewofhisaccomplishments,including his creativityresearch, the FutureProblemSolvingProgram,and theIncubationModel ofTeaching. Themonographconcludeswitha discussionofhislegacyandtheTorranceCenterfor CreativeStudies.
Sid Parnes:Professor Emeritus,andFoundingDirectorforthe Center in StudiesofCreativity, Buffalo,NY,andCo-Founder ofthe Osborne-Parnes CreativeSolvingProblemProcess.
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TYPESOFTHINKING
CriticalThinking:usingbasic thinking processes to analyze arguments and generate insight into particular meanings and interpretations
Critical Thinking Skills
Inductivereasoning- makingobservations thatsuggestaconclusionor leadto an hypothesis
Syllogism - 2 ormorepremises thatare usedtoderive valid conclusions
Deductivereasoning-use ofstated premisestodrawconclusionsthat canlogically be derivedfromthem
Classification-to sortor groupobjects,events,or people into clusters according totheir common factors, attributes,orcharacteristics
Sequencing-arrangingina connectedseriesbasedonaparticular propertyor characteristic
Inferring-to derivea conclusionfrom facts orpremises; toguess,surmise;toreason beyondavailable informationtofillin gaps
Problemsolving-usingbasicthinkingprocessestodefine andresolveadifficulty Patterning-seekingconstanttraits orreplicablecharacteristics, artistically, mathematically
Analogy - a problem-solvingstrategyinwhichlinguisticorfiguralsimilaritiesare noted between2ormore situations,whilesimultaneouslydiscerningtherearealsodifferences intherelationship
Ambiguity- recognizing more thanonemeaninginacommunicationComparison - juxtaposingitemstoestablishsimilarities
Contrasting-to compareobjectsor ideasby emphasizing theirdifferences
Analysis-seekingrelationships suchaspart/whole,patterns,sequences,order,logical deductions,attributes / Creativethinking:usingbasic thinking processes to develop or invent novel, aesthetic, constructive ideas or products
CreativeThinkingSkills
Fluency-generating multipleresponses toa problem,situation,solution Brainstorming-a grouporindividualmethodforgenerating multiple responses
Flexibility - viewing ideas orsolutions from awidevarietyofperspectives SCAMPER- amodel to use tobecomemore flexible in thinking. The anagram stands forSubstitute,Combine,Adapt,Modify-Magnify-Minify-Put tootheruses,Eliminate,Reverse
Elaboration-addingdetails to acreativeideaorproduct;fleshingoutwith details
Originality-creatinganewornovelideaorproduct; maybeonalevelof comparisonwithoneself,with one's agepeers,withtheworldatlarge Attributelisting - amethodto generatemoreand different ideas bylisting knownattributesandthenchangingorimprovingthem inunusualways Metaphor-linguisticcomparisonsformedwhenwenote similaritiesbetween things thatare basicallydissimilar;oftenusedincreativethinkingandwriting
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