Note to Neil and Debs

Trait Emotional Intelligence: Evaluating the theoretical construct, its relationship to other psychological variables, and potential interventions to enhance it.

ELKE NAUHEIMER BA (Hons) MA

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements of the University of Wolverhampton

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

June 2015

This work or any part thereof has not previously been presented in any form to the University or to any other body whether for the purposes of assessment, publication or for any other purpose (unless otherwise indicated). Save for any express acknowledgments, references and/or bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual content of the work is the result of my own efforts and of no other person.

The right of Elke Nauheimer to be identified as author of this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. At this date copyright is owned by the author.

Signature………………………………………..

Date……………………………………………..

Abstract

Research suggests that there are now two distinct approaches to Emotional Intelligence (EI): ability and trait. To date, however, the literature indicates that the construct remains poorly defined and not always adequately measured. Focusing on trait EI, the current thesis identifies a number of research questions that centre on what it is that defines EI in relation to existing definitions and other constructs, namely, happiness, self-esteem, mood and personality.Moreover, a programme of empirical study investigates whether a training intervention can enhance levels of EI and thus contribute to the emerging applied field of enquiry.This has been achieved through the employment of a series of studies. The initial study used the Repertory Grid Technique (RGT) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to generate a definition of EI, which directed this thesis towards alignment with the trait approach. The second study aimed to identify correlations and explore possible predictor variables through the application of Pearson’s r and Hierarchical Regression analysis. Moreover, a Mediation and Moderation analysis investigated whether EI has a mediating or moderating role when combined with other predictors. Two further experimental studies examined whether EI could be experimentally enhanced through a programme of relaxation and positive thinking when compared with a control group engaged in a non-demanding reading task.

The results of the first study produced a definition of EI that included descriptions of work-related qualities with the second study yielding results of high correlations between EI, happiness and self-esteem, which were also identified as predictor variables. EI was found to act as a mediator and moderator. Analysis of Variance generated results for the first experimental study that showed overall non-significant interactions. To investigate beyond these findings, the second programme showed that the training programme induced positive changes. It was concluded that, overall, the results contribute to a definition beyond existing definitions of EI, demonstrating EI’s strong associations particularly with happiness, self-esteem and,its mediating and moderating rolewith other predictors. Primarily, the results from the second experimental study demonstrate the potential of EI in the applied field, including education, work and health.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my appreciationto my Director of Studies, Dr Neil Morrisand also Dr Debra Cureton for her knowledge, wisdom and endless support. I am also grateful to my colleagues and friends at the university who helped and supported me; thank you Gaby Silva-Maceda, Lisa Orchard and, Yun Lua. It is with deepest affection that I remember my fellow PhD student and friend, the late Mandy Finn.

Above all I want to express my deepest gratitude to all the participants who gave up their valuable time to be part of my research. Some travelled to participate, others made elaborate arrangements to find the time and I am indebted to you all.

Not only am I grateful to Jens, Sven and Kirsty for their endless support and love, I am also honoured and proud to have you in my life and being able to share this journey with you means everything to me, also, thanks to the ‘Bank of Kaufman’ for the financial support.

And to celebrate life and the joy of learning and achievement I dedicate this thesis to Mutti at the end of life and Echo at the beginning.My dear Echo, I thank you for your help and support, you kept me grounded for four years and please, never forget that you can achieve anything you want to achieve. For both of us a new part of life begins today, 28.October 2015, so let’s go and welcome Kit.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 – Overview of the Research Study

1.0Introduction

1.1General Aim of this Research

1.2 Chapters Summary

1.2.1Chapter Two

1.2.2Chapter Three

1.2.3Chapter Four

1.2.4Chapter Five

1.2.5Chapter Six

1.3Summary of Overview

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.0Introduction

2.1The Development of EI

2.1.1The Background of EI: A Historical Perspective

2.1.2Influences from Theories of Emotion

2.1.3Influences from Theories of Intelligence

2.2Construct Development of EI

2.2.1Introduction

2.2.2Popularisation of EI

2.2.3Ability versus Trait

2.2.3.1Ability Based Model

2.2.3.2Trait Based Model

2.2.4Measurement Issues

2.3Associated Constructs Pertaining to this Study

2.3.1Introduction

2.3.2Happiness

2.3.3Self- Esteem

2.3.4Mood

2.3.5Personality

2.4Summary and Conclusion

Chapter 3 - The Definition of Emotional Intelligence: an Exploration of Individuals’
Personal Constructions of Emotional Intelligence

3.0Introduction

3.1Introduction to the Study

3.2Defining EI

3.2.1Initial Attempts to Define EI

3.2.2Formal Definitions

3.3Rationale for Conducting the Study

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2The RepGrid Method for Data Collection

3.3.3The Background Relevant to the RepGrid Development

3.3.4Recent Development in the Application of the RepGrid Technique

3.3.5Theoretical Considerations

3.3.6Summary of the Rationale

3.4Methodology

3.4.1Design

3.4.2Participants

3.4.3Materials

3.4.3.1Information for Participant

3.4.3.2Element Sheets

3.4.3.3Repertory Grid Steps for Completion Sheet

3.4.3.4Repertory Grid Completion Sheet

3.5Procedure

3.6Results

3.6.1Analysis

3.6.2Summary of Analysis

3.7Discussion

3.8Chapter Summary and Concluding Comments

Chapter 4 - The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence, Happiness, Self-Esteem, Mood and Personality

4.0Introduction

4.1Introduction to the Study

4.2Rationale for the Study

4.3Study Variables

4.3.1Happiness and Self-Esteem

4.3.2Mood and Personality

4.3.3Summary of Section

4.3.4Primary Aims of the Study

4.4Method

4.4.1Design

4.4.2Statistics Utilised in this Study

4.4.2.1Pearson’s Product Correlation Coefficient.

4.4.2.2Multiple Regression: Hierarchical Approach

4.4.2.3 Mediator and Moderator Analysis

4.4.3Participants

4.4.4Materials

4.4.4.1The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire – Short Form (TEIQueSF: Petrides & Furnham, 2009)

4.4.4.2The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHI: Hills & Argyle, 2002)

4.4.4.3UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist (UMACL: Matthews, Jones &
Chamberlain, 1990)

4.4.4.4The State Self-esteem Scale (SSES: (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991)

4.4.4.5Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI: Gosling, Rentfrow & Swann, 2003)

4.4.4.6Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE: Rosenberg, 1965)

4.4.4.7Subscales of Tests

4.4.5Procedure

4.5Results

4.5.1Initial Correlation Analysis

4.5.2Multiple Regression Analyses: A Hierarchical Approach

4.5.3Testing for Mediation and Moderation

4.5.3.1Testing for Mediation

4.5.3.2Testing for Moderation

4.6Discussion

4.7Chapter Summary and Concluding Comments

Chapter 5 – A Study to Investigate Whether Levels of Emotional Intelligence will be Enhanced as a Result of an Experimental Intervention

5.0Introduction

5.1Introduction to the Study

5.2Theoretical Considerations of EI Enhancement Through Training Intervention

5.2.1Introduction

5.2.2Occupational Training Interventions

5.2.3Laboratory Based Training Interventions

5.2.4Summary of Section

5.3Rationale for Conducting the First Study

5.3.1Introduction

5.3.2Rationale and General Aims

5.3.3The Primary Aims of the Study

5.4Methodology

5.4.1Introduction

5.4.2Design

5.4.3Participants

5.4.4Materials

5.4.4.1Recruitment Poster

5.4.4.2Summary Sheet for Briefing Sessions

5.4.4.3Timetable for Groups

5.4.4.4Test Measures

5.4.5Procedure

5.4.5.1Procedure for the Combined Groups

5.4.5.2Procedurefor experimental condition 1: Progressive Relaxation (PR)

5.4.5.2.1 Introduction to Session Outline

5.4.5.2.2 Session One

5.4.5.2.3 Session Two

5.4.5.2.4 Session Three

5.4.5.3Procedure for Experimental Condition 2: Happiness through Positive
Thinking (HA)

5.4.5.3.1 Introduction to Session Outline

5.4.5.3.2 Session One

5.4.5.3.3 Session Two

5.4.5.3.4 Session Three

5.4.5.4Procedure for Experimental Condition 3: Control Group (CG)

5.4.5.4.1 Introduction to Session Outline

5.4.5.4.2 Session One

5.4.5.4.3 Session Two

5.4.5.4.4 Session Three

5.5Results

5.5.1Summary of ANOVAs

5.5.1.1 Emotional Intelligence (EI)

5.5.1.2 Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ)

5.5.1.3 UWIST Energetic Arousal (UWIST-EA)

5.5.1.4 UWIST Tense Arousal (UWIST-TA)

5.5.1.5 UWIST Hedonic Tone (UWIST-HT)

5.5.1.6 State Self Esteem Scale Performance (SSES -P)

5.5.1.7 State Self Esteem Scale Social (SSES -S)

5.5.1.8 State Self Esteem Scale Appearance (SSES -A)

5.5.1.9 Ten Item Personality Inventory Extraversion (TIPI-EX)

5.5.1.10 Ten Item Personality Inventory Agreeableness (TIPI-AG)

5.5.1.11 Ten Item Personality Inventory Conscientiousness (TIPI-CO)

5.5.1.12 Ten Item Personality Inventory Emotional Stability (TIPI-ES)

5.5.1.13 TIPI Openness to Experience (TIPI-OE)

5.5.1.14 Rosenberg Self-esteem (RSE)

5.5.1.15 Additional analysis of significant main effects

5.5.1.15.1 Results

5.5.2 Summary of Results

5.6Discussion of the First Experimental Study

5.7Introduction to the Second Experimental Study

5.7.1Overview of the Study

5.7.2Programme Enrichment

5.7.3Rationale and Aim for Conducting the Second Study

5.8Methodology

5.8.1Design

5.8.2Participants

5.8.3Materials

5.8.3.1Recruitment Poster

5.8.3.2Summary Sheet for Briefing Sessions

5.8.3.3Timetable for Groups

5.8.3.4Test Measures

5.8.3.5Recursive Abstraction Sheet (RA)

5.8.3.6Feedback Sheets

5.8.4Procedure

5.8.4.1Procedure for the Combined Number of Participants

5.8.4.2Procedure for the Experimental: Happiness Group

5.8.4.2.1 Introduction to Session Outline

5.8.4.2.2 Session One and Session Two

5.8.4.2.3 Session Three and Session Four

5.8.4.2.4 Session Five and Session Six

5.8.4.3Procedure for the Control Group (CG)

5.8.4.3.1 Introduction to Session Outline

5.8.4.3.2 Session One

5.8.4.3.3 Session Two – Session Five

5.8.4.3.4 Session Six

5.9Results

5.9.1Summary of Interactions

5.9.1.1 Emotional Intelligence (EI)

5.9.1.2 Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ)

5.9.1.3 State Self Esteem Scale Performance (SSES-P)

5.9.1.4 State Self Esteem Scale Social (SSES-S)

5.9.1.5 State Self Esteem Scale Appearance (SSES-A)

5.9.1.6 Rosenberg self-esteem (RSE)

5.9.1.7 Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)

5.9.2Summary of Results

5.10Discussion

5.11Summary of the Experimental Studies

5.12Chapter Summary and Concluding Comments

Chapter 6 - General Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation for Future
Research

6.0Introduction

6.1Summary of Overall Results

6.1.1Introduction

6.1.2The Definition of EI

6.1.3Relationships between EI, Happiness, Self-Esteem, Mood and Personality

6.1.4Studies Investigating Whether Levels of EI Can Be Enhanced as a Result
of a Training Intervention

6.2Conclusions

6.2.1Introduction

6.2.2Conclusions as a Result of the Four Studies

6.3Implications for Future Research

6.4Chapter Summary

References

List of Appendices

Appendix A: Study Material listed by chapters 3-5

Chapter 3

3.1Information sheet

3.2Informed consent sheet

3.3Steps for completion

3.4Completion sheet

3.5Initial table - Rotated Factor Loading

3.6Element of EI (Petrides & Furnham (2001) and factors of present study

Chapter 4

4.1Information Sheet

4.2Informed consent sheet

4.3Study outline and instructions

4.4Summary of Pilot study

Chapter 5

5.1Recruitment poster

5.2Summary sheet for briefing session

5.3Timetable for groups (example)

5.4Summary of tests utilised for this study

5.5Information sheet for participants

5.6Informed consent sheet

5.7Instructions to participants for PR

5.8Information sheet for participants

5.9Appendices: Informed consent sheet

5.10Instructions to participants

5.11Information sheet for participants

5.12Informed consent sheet

5.13Instructions to participants

5.14Multimodal Relaxation Method Script.

5.15The positive thinking programme

5.16Recruitment poster

5.17Summary sheet for briefing session

5.18Timetable for groups (example)

5.19Summary of tests utilised for this study

5.20Information sheet for participants

5.21Informed consent sheet

5.22Instructions to participants

5.23Information sheet for participants

5.24Informed consent sheet

5.25Instructions to participants

Appendix B: Study Data listed by study 1-4

Study 1: The definition of EI: an exploration of individuals’ personal construction of EI

S1.1 Individual data sets 1 – 10

S1.2 Scree plots figures (example of 3)

Study 2: The relationships between EI, Happiness, Self-esteem, Mood and Personality

S2.1List of variables

S2.2 Data of 146 participants for study 2

Study 3: Experimental study 1

S3.1 Data of 90 participants for study 3

Study 4: Experimental study 2

S4.1 Data for 2x12 participants for study 4

S4.2 Data collection from evaluation (summarised notes)

Lists of Figures

Figure 3.1 - The sampling domain list of the trait model (Petrides & Furnham, 2001)...... 77

Figure 3.2 - List of element sheets...... 89

Figure 5.1 - UWIST Energetic Arousal (UWIST-EA) – the change from pre to post treatment

Figure 5.2 - Emotional Intelligence (EI) – the change from pre to post treatment.

Figure 5.3 - Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) – the change from pre to post treatment.

Figure 5.4 - State Self-Esteem Scale Performance (SSES-P) – the change from pre to
post treatment.

Figure 5.5 - State Self-esteem Scale Social (SSES-S) – the change from pre to post
treatment.

Figure 5.6 - State Self-esteem Sale Appearance (SSES-A) – the change from pre to
post treatment.

Figure 5.7 - Rosenberg Self-esteem (RSE) – the change from pre to post treatment.

Figure 5.8 - Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) – the change from pre to post treatment.

List of Tables

Table 2.1 - Differences between performance-based and self-report measures of EI

Table 2.2 - Sampling domain and scoring methodology

Table 3.1 - Overview of the ability model (Mayer et al., 2011)

Table 3.2 - Overview of the mixed model 1 (Goleman, 1995)

Table 3.3 - Overview of the mixed model 2 (Bar-On, 1997)

Table 3.4 - Headings of completion sheet

Table 3.5 - Example of completed activity

Table 3.6 - Analysis of factors by each participant

Table 3.7 - Key terms generated to define Emotional Intelligence

Table 3.8 - Summary of key EI elements and factors for comparison

Table 4.1 - Pearson’s correlations for Emotional Intelligence and happiness, mood, state
self-esteem, personality and global self-esteem

Table 4.2 - Summary of statistics

Table 4.3 - Regression Results of Individual Effects of Predictors on EI

Table 4.4 - Hierarchical Regression Model of EI

Table 4.5 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between happiness
and global self-esteem

Table 4.6 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and performance self-esteem

Table 4.7 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and emotional stability

Table 4.8 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and openness to experience

Table 4.9 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between global
self-esteem and performance self-esteem

Table 4.10 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between global
self-esteem and emotional stability

Table 4.11 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between global
self-esteem and openness to experience

Table 4.12 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between performance
self-esteem and emotional stability

Table 4.13 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between performance
self-esteem and openness to experience

Table 4.14 - Results of mediating effects of EI on the relationship between emotional
stability and openness to experience

Table 4.15 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and
global self-esteem

Table 4.16 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and performance self-esteem

Table 4.17 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and emotional stability

Table 4.18 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between happiness and openness to experience

Table 4.19 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between global
self-esteem and performance self-esteem

Table 4.20 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between global
self-esteem and emotional stability

Table 4.21 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between global
self-esteem and openness to experience

Table 4.22 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between performance
self-esteem and emotional stability

Table 4.23 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between performance
self-esteem and openness to experience

Table 4.24 - Results of moderation effects of EI on the relationship between emotional
stability and openness to experience

Table 4.25 - Summary of the mediation analyses

Table 4.26 - Summary of the moderation analyses

Table 5.1 - Summary of means and standard deviations of pre- and post-scores for each
scale

Table 5.2 - Means and standard deviations for EI scores by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.3 - Means and standard deviations for OHQ scores by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.4 - Means and standard deviations for UWIST-TA by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.5 - Means and standard deviations for UWIST-HT by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.6 - Means and standard deviations for SSES-P performance self-esteem by time
and experimental conditions

Table 5.7 - Means and standard deviations for SSES-S performance self-esteem by time
and experimental conditions

Table 5.8 - Means and standard deviations for SSES-A self-esteem by time and
experimental conditions

Table 5.9 - Means and standard deviations for TIPI-EX by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.10 - Means and standard deviations for TIPI-AG by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.11 - Means and standard deviations for TIPI-CO by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.12 - Means and standard deviations for TIPI-ES by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.13 - Means and standard deviations for TIPI-OE by time and experimental
conditions

Table 5.14 - Means and standard deviations for RSE by time and experimental conditions

Table 5.15 - Means and standard deviations for the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) scores by time (all experimental conditions combined)

Table 5.16 - Means and standard deviations for UWIST Tense Arousal (UWIST-TA) by time
(all experimental conditions combined)

Table 5.17 - Means and standard deviations for UWIST Hedonic Tone by time (all
experimental conditions combined)

Table 5.18 - Means and standard deviations for State Self-Esteem Scale Performance
(SSES-P) by time and experimental conditions

Table 5.19 - Pairwise comparisons between experimental groups for TIPI Conscientiousness (TIPI-C)

Table 5.20 - Design incorporating five pre- and post-tests

Table 5.21 - Summary of means and standard deviations of pre-and post- scores for each measure

Table 5.22 - Summary of evaluation comments provided by participants after completion

- 1 -

Chapter 1– Overview of the Research Study

1.0Introduction

This overview offers an introduction to the research study.EI has received much attention since the early 1990’s when it was acclaimed asa construct that moderates intelligent behaviour through the influence on individual reaction and interpretation of information (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). The interaction between emotion and intelligence had been the subject of theories of social and personal intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Thorndike 1920). These theories have been influential in the development of EI because they reflected the tension between emotion and reason that dates back to ancient Greece. Following a number of attempts to identify what EI consists of, the first theorists to draw attention to EI as a valid concept were Salovey and Mayer (1990) who proposed a hierarchical psychometric model of intelligence for the ability to use and manage emotion, insisting that EI qualifies as a form of intelligence that will broaden the conceptualisation of traditional views of intelligence.Moreover, they argued that this form of intelligence can be learned and taught and may account for individual differences in personal and professional success and well-being.

Initially, their efforts were met with limited interest in academic as well as popular literature until Goleman’s (1995) publication generated immense interest in the subject area and there followed a plethora of alternative theories accompanied by measuring tools that were often not subjected to sufficiently thorough empirical analyses (Murphy, 2006). Exaggerated claims as to EI’s relevance to personal and occupational success increased skepticism towards the concept particularly in academic literature (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004).Questions were being asked about the face validity of EI (Matthews et al., 2006) because emotions had traditionally been likened to irrational thought processes (Damasio, 1994) or even disruptive mental activities that were difficult to measure objectively particularly if measured within an IQ framework (Sternberg, 2004).