Literature of Diplomacy

Introduction

Diplomacy lays the foundation for nations to maintain amiable relations with each other (Jacoby, 2013). This is achieved through fostering negotiations that culminate in consensual decision making and agreements, subsequently facilitating social, political, and economic growth for partisan countries. The author is rightly cognizant of the growing need for prioritization of diplomatic excellence in all nations, which further justifies the need for additional research in the field. Continued exploration of prospective improvements to conventional diplomacy will make it possible to develop practices that befit the rapid advancement of modern political environs. The need for improved diplomatic modalities is arguably the primary motivation for this literature review. Analysis of relevant extant literaturepavesthe way for the development of a framework that can facilitate measurement of the degree of maturity of ICT in diplomatic activities.E-diplomacy, which is considered the use of advanced ICT tools in diplomatic efforts, can be used as a measure of diplomatic excellence as it indicates the advanced nature of diplomacy in any given setting (Shultz, 1997). The use of ICT cannot be underestimated or foregone, particularly in contemporary political and administrative structures, where communication speed and efficiency are mainstays (Dizard, 2001).

The literature reviewdoes not actually construct the projected framework, it provides vital theoretical background, which rationalizes the formation of the framework deliberated upon later in the research. The next section will detailthe background information regarding current diplomatic functions, followed by presentation of. Section three will explorekey features of the proposed e-diplomacy maturity framework. Elements such as maturity phases, and possible factors that influence execution and assimilation of the e-diplomacy maturity model are explored too. Lastly, the last section will sum up key findings of the analysis, while outlining concluding remarks and recommendations.

Literature of diplomacy

According to Sun (2008), many countries are progressively recognizing the need for precise and effective diplomatic relations in an attempt to promote and sustain economic competitiveness, political supremacy, andcultural relevance. As a result, such nations are constantly searching for novel ways to capitalize on diplomacy. In support of the preceding assertion, Armitage and Nye (2007) observe that diplomatic distinctionis dependent on certain variables, key among them beingutilisation of e-diplomacy. Also referred to as digital diplomacy, this modern approach to diplomatic relations involves using advanced information communication technologies (ICTs) such as integrated computer systems and the internet to execute diplomatic functions (Bollier, 2003). The subsequent discussion should provide a detailed analysis of some of the key diplomatic functions documented in literature.

Developing bilateral relation is a key function for any diplomat. Thompson and Verdier(2013)unequivocallystipulates that bilateralism encompasses economic, cultural, and political associations between two autonomouscountries. Nations involved in these types of relations recognize each other’s sovereignty and agree to work together guided by defined terms and conditions. Partisan states usually swap agents, such as ambassadors, to represent their respective interests and oversee maintenance of these agreements. (Thompson and Verdier, 2013).

Promoting the home country and building its image globally is yet another key function of diplomatic relations and an indicator of diplomacy excellence. As denoted by Freeman (2007), tags associated with certain nations like terrorism, political instability, debt defaults, and human rights violations, often paint such countries in a negative light, making it virtually impossible for them to create and sustain productive links with others. These include implementation of prudent fiscal policies and practices that seek poverty eradication (Malone, 2005). In addition, they can pass laws that safeguard equity and human rights protection. This can go a long way in repairing a country’s image, increasing willingness by others to associate with it (Yucheng, 2012).

Another key function of diplomats is public engagements. In light of this, public diplomacy differs from traditional diplomacy and is deemed better since it covers a broader range of interactions with both governments and non-governmentalinstitutions (Leonard, 2002). Nonetheless, for greater efficacy, public diplomacy should also institute measures that assure the accountability of diplomats and counter the perception that they are invincible. In accordance with Mathews (2007),ensuring accountability to the public is vital since diplomats act as a country’s representatives and their behavior, positive or negative, reflects back on their respective nations.

In addition, in their examination of internal measures of diplomacy performance, Burt Robison (2008) emphasise on the diplomatic function of providing consular services. The authors indicate that excellence of consular services translates to diplomacy brilliance. Nicolson (2011) supports this notion by indicating that consular services, which constitute assistance availed by diplomats to a nation’s citizens in a foreign host country, greatly determine diplomats’ diligence and commitment to cordial relations. It is, therefore, vital for any embassy and foreign ministry, in general, to have highly professional staff since the consular services delivered are great determinants of diplomacy (Rana & Kurbalija, 2007).

The next section will discuss the ICT stage of growth theories and models that are used to formulate the proposed framework.

ICT Stage of growth theories and models

Universally, growth models are used by information technology experts to assess the efficiency of software models (King, and Kraemer. 1984). The models are used due to the ostensible fact that they can effectively assess the efficiency of information systems and ensure that the crucial implementation stages are correct and that they are used in significant areas such as information systems development, product life cycles, and biological sciences. The pattern of stages taken by the growth models is predictable, as asserted by Shiels et al., (2003), and each stage helps in defining the exact procedure of successfully implementing a specific system. The models started to gain significance in the early 70s research.The oldest and widely used model is that of Richard Nolan that was established in1973 (Nolan, 1973). The model was definite and provided an ostensible description on how firms developed their information systems (Galliers Sutherland, 1991). Another model was Earl’s; it was developed in 1983 and concentrated on the progression of planning information systems and an organisation’s maturity in planning (Galliers Sutherland, 1991). Earl had a vision that daily business operations would be built on technology(Earl, 1983) .Further, in 1988, Bhabuta established his model whose main objective was to design the formal development to strategic planning (Galliers Sutherland, 1991). Since the market was becoming increasingly competitive, the strategies that focus on improving products would form better models, as outlined by Bhabuta (1988), the information systems have to copiously rushgrowth and development of businesses. A close examination of the stages of growth models proves that they have overly similar features. For instance, initiation is the first stage in all the models. This stage, as postulated by Earl (1983), involves accomplishment of the basic users’ demands. In addition, the final stages in in the models are about the complexity of the associated features. All the reviewed models begin with problem definition to identify the targeted domain. Their main focus was on full maturity and integration of all system components. The central phases focus on maturity model development and lay on items such as control, auditing, planning and improvement of some advanced functions of the system. This involves design selection, the necessary approach and the model selection before testing the results. Furthermore, communication that runs between the organisation and its targeted users takes place in the middle stages of the models. This can be seen during the integration phase of Nolan’ model and externally based planning (Bhabuta, 1988).

E-government Maturity models

The electronic government maturity framework is used to evaluate web platforms for e-administration. The model comprises of several phases that range from simple tasks like information sharing to complex functions like transactional capacity used in determining maturity levels (Lee, 2010). Several studies have explored the concept of maturity levels in e-government. An excellent case is Fath-Allah’s (2014) comparative study, which takes into account models used by 25 distinctive e-government models. Findings of the author are pertinent to this research in recommending a comprehensive model for best tasks in defining maturity of e-government portal. Siau Long (2005) also examine five models delineating e-government maturity, which are further used to create a novel model for the e-administration phase. Finally, a meta-synthesis by Siau & Long (2005) evaluates 12 e-governance models, whose findings reinforce previous studies’ conclusions on the vital comprehensive nature of e-governance and staging models. In summary, it is possible to distribute electronic governance into different phases for ease of management. Additionally, similarities in the different phases mean that different portals are viable for use by government in fostering electronic communication. This also means that even though names used to refer to the various maturity phases could vary, they remain relatively the same in terms of content (Fath-Allah et al., 2014). These phases can be classified into three principal categories namely; initial, intermediate, and final steps respectively. The initial stage is also considered the information phase in most models and it features assessment of availability of ICT services and the internet portal. The middle stage is restricted to government and citizen interaction and traverses virtually all phases of e-governance models. The last stage characterizes maturity and focuses primarily on advanced attributes of communication, which facilitates complete Integration of all governance functions.

Conceptualisation an e-Diplomacy Maturity Framework

The objective of thisresearch is to present the foundation for the design of the e-diplomacy maturity framework andseeks to provide a frame of reference for the purpose of measuring e-diplomacy. Greene (2003) emphasizes that with the continually growing ICT relevance, available opportunities are limitless. For example, it is possible to utilise social media to publicise, inform, and educate members of the public about diverse bilateral and multilateral associations (Aoki-Okabe, 2010). ICT systems have proven effective in creating and promoting the intended image of the home country. Furthermore, ICTs facilitate constant and effective interaction amongst citizens both in the home country or foreign nations and with their respective foreign affairs ministries (Bergman, 2014; Fontaine& Rogers, 2011).Thefour stages of the e-diplomacy conceptual frameworkwere derived by examination of ICT growth models, exploring the maturity model for e-government and practice and theory of e-diplomacy and diplomacy that were discussed earlier. The figure hereunderdemonstrates the proposed theoretical e-diplomacy maturity framework

Figure 1, Conceptual framework for e-diplomacy maturity

The succeeding subsections elaborates the elements ofthe frameworkpresented above.

The Stages of the Maturity Framework

The stages of the proposed e-diplomacy framework are derived from the aforementioned stage of growth as well as e-government maturity models. According to Poeppelbuss (2011), numerous related IS research works have been conducted on maturity models. Some of these research works have repeatedly referred to maturity models as the stage or stages-of-growth models (Solli-Sæther & Gottschalk, 2010); however, in the IS domain, these models are known as the IT artifacts and theories. For instance, the IS domain regards Nolan’s (1973) stage design as a theory since it predicts and explains concepts of IT business evolution. According to Solli-Sæther and Gottschalk (2010), it is an idea that helped in the development of stage models. In addition, the reason behind relating and linking the e-government models to the proposed e-diplomacy framwork is that both e-diplomacy and e-government are services provided to citizens and share some common features. However, the e-diplomacy maturity framework differs from those of e-government in term of the scope of operation. E-diplomacy not only pertains to the contact between the government and people in any specific nation but also has to do with the contact between the government and the international community. Moreover, the variation associated with varied diplomatic tasks like mutual relations, advancement, conciliation, PR, and consular services sets it apart from general public and e-government services.

The stages are explained in these subsections.

Stage 1: Intra-Organisational Capabilities

All the growth of stage theories start their leading stage with the initiation stages (Nolan: initiation), (Earl: Meeting the demands), and (Bhabuta: basic finical planning). This inter-organisation digital capabilities will position an organisation in a strategic location to handle IT capabilities. This stage of maturity is crucial in the sense that it is vital to assess the current situation and prioritise improvements that need to be implemented.Currently, many Foreign Ministries utilise a more advanced computer system developed to have the same capabilities and configuration. The software is therefore, set up in all computers in different departments of the foreign ministry. For instance, the HR and finance departments are usually backed by decision making thus a lot of knowledge is shared via the software. According to Batora, (2008), the technology has improved efficiency in the foreign ministry that properly maintaining both internal and external international network.

Stage 2: Mobile Access

The intermediate stages of the growth of stage models such as Nolan, Earl and Bhabuta, involve delivering advanced tasks to the users. Such services include contagion and control as in the case of Nolan model (Nolan, 1973) and business support and planning in case of Earl (Earl, 1983). Also, some e-government maturity models’ second stages involves the introduction of advance ICT facilities such as Wescott model where the second stage contains tasks such as enabling inter organisational and public access to the information (Wescot, 2001). Equally, in the event of the proposed e-diplomacy maturity framework the second stage involves advanced functions such as providing ubiquitous access in the form of multi-channel and mobile access. In this second stage, a more complex ICT implementation is required than the first stage and an interaction between the organisation and its employees (i.e: the diplomats) is noticed. Therefore, this stage can be described to have an intermediate stage of maturity. Mobile access is crucial especially for diplomats to have the capability to exchange texts in electronic format simultaneously. There is an increase in the use of social networking platforms like Twitter and Facebook thus greately reducing diplomats mobility. This means that there is physically travel and presence to foreign countries. Utilising social media platforms enable the diplomats, to easily access and address an audience in any part of the world. This therefore, reduces the need for travelling in order to have a physical presence with the audience, but the message is delivered promptly (Gaida, 2013). It is apparent that the social media and improved technology like smartphones greatly affects not only the mode of communication, but also the speed and efficiency at which it is delivered to the audience. Therefore, there is ease in communication, as well as, sharing of information between diplomats regardless of their location.

Stage 3: Citizens’ interaction

The Stage of growth theories does explain some aspects of external interaction. For example, Bhabuta phase 3 requires some aspect of externally oriented planning (Bhabuta, 1988). Also, Earl Model (Earl, 1983) discussed some aspects of external communication. On the other hand, most of the e-government models (Faith-Allah,2014) concluded that the middle stages involves the interaction between the citizens and the government ranging from the level of interaction from one stage to the other. Likewise, the proposed e-diplomacy maturity model’s third stage entails the interaction between the organisation and the citizens. It is the responsibility of any foreign ministry to provide outstanding services to its citizens abroad. This is properly illustrated by the Qatari’s foreign affairs ministry where the mission statement is “To have a distinguished foreign policy for the State of Qatar at both regional and international levels, and care for the interests of citizens abroad” (MOFAQ). Presently, the ministry is embarking on the usage of technology. As stipulated in the preceding information, one of the principal functions of any consular department of an embassy or foreign ministry is communicate, protect and care for its citizens’ interests. Currently, ICT can enhance as well as facilitate the affairs and tasks of these consular. Increased usage of ICT tools social media platforms, online services, as well as, applications would therefore, facilitate efficiency in communication. By utilising online communication platforms, the foreign affairs can easily share information and collaborate with other countries. This will enhance effective communication between communities as well as their nationalities regardless of their location. Therefore, the embassies and foreign ministries will make their policies available to everyone. For instance, many embassies apply the internet as a tool to exchange cultural ideologies and promote their home country. By making videos, articles and other forms of information available, people are able to access them and get to know cultural (Permyakova, 2014). These materials are therefore accessible globally. E-diplomacy has also simplified applications of Visa and facilitated direct and better communication with citizens loving in different countries (IRM’s Office of eDiplomacy, 2016).

Stage 4: Collaborative Diplomacy

The final stage of the e-diplomacy maturity model entails its full integration and maturity. Nolan’s integration stage suggests the organisation is familiar to the new technology and has already set down rules that will govern its usage. Moreover, Stage 4 of Bhabuta model includes creating the future systematic innovation and linking all the stakeholders (Bhabuta, 1988). The last phase, as asserted by Earl (1983), requires business IT strategy linkage and achieving maturity collaboration. Similarly, the e-diplomacy’s final stage (collaborative diplomacy) entails full integration and maturity. This stage is reflected to be an innovative stage, as it entails very high level of complexity as well as interaction among all stakeholders. To attain this stage of full maturity three main tasks should be fulfilled and these include: Delivering internal infrastructure for all the foreign missions to support full integration. Secondly, to secure communication of officials and diplomats, and finally, linking all stakeholders.Currently, there is increased evolvement of technological aspects like the introduction of the virtual private network (VPN). There are improved computer security systems as well as encryption methods. Remote accessibility and integration between different affiliates has assisted accessibility of information since it is stored under one database. This makes the information readily available to the necessary departments and the public domain. Implementation of complex technology by foreign ministries has greatly assisted in enhancing the communication process among people and all related departments. Additionally, e-diplomacy has improved communication betweenembassies in the same areas (Batora, 2008).