Iron Felix Dzerzhinsky Was a Brutal Man. Under His Direction, Hundreds of Thousands Of

Chapter 18 Text

Section One

"Iron Felix" Dzerzhinsky was a brutal man. Under his direction, hundreds of thousands of people were killed in the Russian Revolution of 1917. The revolution destroyed the old empire of Russia. In its place rose a new empire called the Soviet Union.

The new government chose Iron Felix to set up a secret police force. Its job was to destroy all opposition. The secret police arrested millions of people who were suspected of being disloyal. A statue of Dzerzhinsky in a Moscow square reminded people that the police were always watching.

By 1991, people had had enough. An angry crowd attacked the statue of Iron Felix. They cheered wildly as the symbol of fear came down. By year’s end, the government had fallen as well. The Soviet Union was no more.

Fifteen new nation-states were formed out of the ruins of the Soviet empire. The term nation-state combines two ideas. The first, nation, refers to a group of people who share a common history and culture. Another term for people with such a shared identity is ethnic group. The second, state, refers to a political unit that controls a fixed territory. A nation-state is a country whose people mostly share a common identity.

In this chapter, you will read about the Soviet Union and five of the new nation-states that replaced it. And you will find out what makes a new nation-state likely to succeed or fail.

Section Two: Geographic Setting:

The Soviet Union was a vast country. It covered more than half of Europe and nearly two fifths of Asia. In area it was almost two and a half times the size of the United States. It had the third largest population in the world. Only China and India had more people.

From Superpower to Failed StateFrom 1945 to 1990, the Soviet Union was one of the world’s two great superpowers. (The United States was the other.) Its armed forces were the largest in the world. For much of this time, it led the world in exploring space.

In 1991, this superpower collapsed. That year, the Soviet Union became the world’s largest failed state. The question is why. One way to answer this question is to compare the Soviet Union with a successful nation-state.

Features of Successful Nation-StatesMany factors affect the success of a nation-state. But five are very important. They are security, political freedom, economic growth, quality of life, and national unity.

The most important job of a nation-state is to keep its people safe. A successful state can protect its people from foreign enemies. Its police work to keep people safe from crime. As you read, in the Soviet Union, the secret police made people feel less, not more, secure.

A successful nation-state protects the rights and freedoms of its citizens. In a free country, the people choose their leaders. Elections are honest and fair. People vote freely without fear of arrest. Elected leaders usually have strong public support. By contrast, the Soviet Union was ruled by dictators. These are leaders who govern by force without the people’s consent.

A successful nation-state uses its resources and location to promote economic growth. Its gross domestic product (GDP) rises over time. GDP is the total value of goods and services produced in a country. As GDP rises, incomes rise. As incomes rise, poverty declines. In the Soviet Union, GDP rose slowly or not at all.

A successful nation-state also tries to improve its people’s quality of life. It works to provide its people with safe food, clean water, and good medical care. As people live healthier lives, life expectancy increases. Also, fewer babies die in their first year. In the Soviet Union, however, quality of life was not improving for many people.

Successful nation-states inspire patriotism, or love of country. People who love their country work to make it succeed. Successful nation-states also inspire nationalism, or feelings of pride and loyalty toward one’s nation. In countries like the Soviet Union that have many ethnic groups, nationalism can create a sense of unity.

However, ethnic group nationalism can sometimes work against national unity. By 1991, ethnic loyalty in the Soviet Union had more support than loyalty to country. At this point, many ethnic groups had decided that they would be better off as independent nation-states than as part of a failing Soviet Union.

Section Three KazzakhstanA Central Asian Giant

Kazakhstan is a Central Asian giant surrounded by other giants. To the southeast lies China. To the north lies Russia. To the west lies the Caspian Sea.

An Arid Land with Many ResourcesMuch of Kazakhstan is too arid for agriculture. But many crops are grown in the northern region and some irrigated areas in the south. Its people also raise cattle, goats, poultry, pigs, and sheep.

Kazakhstan is rich in minerals. It has large deposits of coal, lead, copper, iron, and zinc. Some of the world’s largest oil reserves lie under the Caspian Sea. Oil production is a major part of the country’s economy.

In the future, oil will become even more important. This is due to Kazakhstan’s location between China and the Caspian Sea. Once pipelines are built across the country, oil will flow from the Caspian Sea to oil-thirsty cities of China.

Ethnic Conflicts Create a SplitThe Kazakhs are the main ethnic group in Kazakhstan. They make up about half of the nation’s population. Russians make up about a third of the population. Most Kazakhs are Muslim. Most Russians are Christian. Religious and cultural differences divide the groups.

Most Russians live in northern Kazakhstan. Under Soviet rule, heavy industry developed in the north. Many Russians still work in these industries. Most Kazakhs live in the south. This settlement pattern has created a serious north-south split in the country.

Meanwhile, Kazakhstan faces serious environmental problems. Under Soviet rule, poor irrigation methods damaged farmland. Pesticides seeped into the water supply. Factories released toxic waste. The Soviets also carried out secret nuclear weapons testing. As a result, many people still suffer serious health problems.

Looking ahead, Kazakhstan’s survival will depend on several factors. One is using its resources wisely to raise incomes. Another is solving its environmental problems and improving the quality of life. A third is calming the ethnic unrest, or conflict among ethnic groups, that divides the country. If it can succeed at all three, its future may be bright.

Section Four

Together, the new nation-states of Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan are known as the Caucasus. That’s because the steep Caucasus Mountains tower over them. This region is one of the world’s great crossroads, where Europe meets Asia. Azerbaijan’s location and resources hold the key to its future.

A Country Rich in OilAzerbaijan has huge deposits of oil. Oil is its greatest source of wealth and its number one export. The capital city of Baku, on the shore of the Caspian Sea, is the center of its oil industry.

Azerbaijan lies between Iran and Russia. During Soviet rule, oil pipelines were built to send all of Azerbaijan’s oil to Russia. When the Soviet Union collapsed, so did its hold on Azerbaijan. The new country was then free to sell its oil anywhere.

Since 1991, Azerbaijan has signed agreements with many foreign oil companies. Pipelines are being built to move its oil to customers outside of Russia. Working with foreign oil companies is not easy. But if Azerbaijan succeeds in opening new markets for its oil, its future looks bright.

Ethnic Warfare Clouds the FutureOne obstacle to progress is conflict between ethnic groups in Azerbaijan and neighboring Armenia. The Azeris are the main ethnic group in Azerbaijan. They make up over 90 percent of the population. Most Azeris are Muslim. About 2 percent of the population in Azerbaijan is Armenian. Most Armenians are Christians. The Azeris and the Armenians have a long history of conflict.

Nagorno-Karabakh is a region within Azerbaijan. Most of the people there are Armenians. They want to be independent from Azerbaijan. In 1992, war broke out over the issue. Thousands of people were killed. Almost a million people fled from the fighting. A cease-fire was called in 1994, but the problem was not solved. The violence continues to this day.

Section Five

The word Belarus means “white Russia.” No one knows for sure why the color is part of the country’s name. It might refer to the snow that often covers the land. It might describe the white bark of the birch trees in its forests. The “rus” part of Belarus reflects its location next to Russia on the east. On the west, it borders Europe.

A Landlocked Country of Many LakesThis nation of rolling plains and dense forests is landlocked. In other words, it is surrounded entirely by land. Long ago, glaciers scraped across its plains. The ice sheets created the 11,000 lakes that dot the Belarus landscape.

In the past, the country’s economy was based on farming and logging. Both are still important today. But about a fifth of its farmland and forestland can no longer be used. This land was poisoned when the nearby Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded in 1986. Much of this large area will never be safe for farming or logging again.

Belarus Looks East to RussiaAlmost 8 out of 10 people in Belarus are Belarusians. Russians make up about 11 percent of the population. During Soviet rule, Russian workers and government officials did much to develop Belarus. They cleared and drained its land to create farms run by the government. They brought manufacturing and industry to its cities. They shaped its political system and influenced its culture.

Today, Belarus still has close ties to Russia. Most of its foreign trade is with Russia. Belarus depends on gas and oil from Russia to run its industries. The two countries have signed agreements to work together closely in the future.

However, relations between Belarus and Russia are not always smooth. The two countries disagree about labor and trade issues. They have different ideas about how much power the government should have over its citizens and industries. Although the economy of Belarus is growing, there are many challenges ahead.

Section Six

Three former parts of the Soviet Union—Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia—are known as the Baltic States. They line the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania can look either east or west for political ties. More and more, it looks west.

An Economy Based on Soil and the SeaThe fertile soil of Lithuania produces good crops. Farmers grow potatoes, sugar beets, and flax for cloth. Fields of grain cross the central plains. There are dairies everywhere. Cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry provide meat, eggs, and milk. The Baltic Sea provides food, too, with its fishing grounds and fish farms.

Lithuania has limited mineral resources. Limestone, gravel, sand, and clay are mined to make cement, glass, and ceramics. But fossil fuels and metals are in short supply.

Lithuania Looks West to EuropeNationalism is a strong force in Lithuania. Lithuanians united as a nation around 1200. Their nation was the first part of the Soviet Union to declare its independence in 1990.

Since then, Lithuanians have reformed their political system. Today the nation has a democratic government. Its leaders are chosen in free and fair elections.

In 2004, Lithuania became a member of the European Union, or EU. Chapter 14 explores the EU in detail. Lithuania receives money from the EU to develop its economy.

Lithuania has also joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. Members of NATO promise to defend each other if attacked by another country. By joining NATO and the EU, Lithuanians hope to create a future of peace and prosperity.

Section Seven Russia

Imagine watching from space as your country breaks apart and then ceases to exist. That’s what Soviet astronaut Sergei Krikalev did in 1991. He flew up to the Mir space station as a citizen of the Soviet Union. While he circled the Earth 16 times a day, the Soviet Union collapsed. When he finally set foot on land, he was still a citizen of the largest nation on Earth. But that nation was now Russia.

Rich Resources in a Vast LandAlthough Russia is not as large as the Soviet Union was, it’s still huge. It has vast forests and large deposits of coal and minerals. Its most important resources are oil and natural gas. Because of its cold climate, however, less than 8 percent of its land is suitable for farming.

During Soviet rule, the government owned and ran this vast country’s farms, factories, and businesses. With the end of Soviet rule, the government sold its factories and businesses. But these sales did not help the Russian people. Powerful political leaders grabbed the best businesses for themselves.

Today, most Russian businesses are privately run. But they are not always run well. Many factories sold by the government were old and in need of repair. But often the new owners had no money to make the needed repairs. Other businesses made goods of such poor quality that no one wanted to buy them. As a result, many businesses failed.

Still, with all its challenges, Russia’s economy has been growing every year. Oil exports are a big reason for this growth.

The Challenges Facing Russians TodayLife is not easy in Russia. The crime rate is high. Housing is very costly. Negative population growth is a major challenge. Alcohol abuse and pollution are also big concerns.

Ethnic nationalism has caused problems as well. Russia’s 142 million people come from dozens of ethnic groups. Not all of these groups are pleased to still be a part of Russia. In addition, most Russians belong to the Russian Orthodox Church. However, Russia also has Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and other Christian groups. The activities of some religious groups are limited by law. For example, some are prevented from printing religious literature or operating religious schools.

In an area known as Chechnya, opposition to Russian rule has led to rebellion. During the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, a group of Chechen leaders declared their independence from Russia. In 1994, Russian tanks rolled into Chechnya to crush the movement. More than 100,000 Chechens died in the war. A cease-fire brought an official peace to Chechnya in 1996, but the conflict continues. Battles, bombings, and terrorist attacks have killed thousands on both sides.

Section 8:

Beginning to Think Globally

In this chapter, you have learned about five factors that affect whether a new nation-state will succeed or fail. These factors are security, political freedom, economic growth, quality of life, and national unity. You have seen the power of nationalism to unite a country. You have also seen how conflict among ethnic groups can tear a country apart.

Each nation-state that arose from the former Soviet Union has its own story. Only time will tell whether they will succeed. The same could have been said about the United States in its first years. It won its war of independence only with outside help. Its people felt more loyal to their states than to any country. They distrusted the first government under the Articles of Confederation, which could not hold the new nation together. And the country’s economy was weak.

The world is always changing. Empires rise and collapse. New nations are born and die. Think about this as you look at the map showing the rise of new nations in the section. Which nations will succeed? And which are likely to fail?

Global Connections