Chapter XV - 9
CHAPTER 15:
Constructivism: Knowing, Learning, Remembering, and Believing
1. Constructivism
a. the basics
b. learning
c. the importance of knowledge
d. constructivist teaching
e. constructing memories
2. Belief Systems
a. level one - knowledge
b. level two - personal and cultural paradigms
c. level three - metaphysical paradigms
d. beliefs about belief systems
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is a theory of learning that aligns most closely with cognitive psychology; however, it also seems to reinforce and be reinforced by research in the areas of cognitive neuroscience, humanistic learning theory, and holistic learning theory. Remember, a theory is a way to explain a set of facts. Different theories explain similar facts differently.
The Basics
Learning occurs when new knowledge and understanding is constructed based on what we already know and believe (NRC, 2000). This is the essence of constructivism. We do not simply replicate in our heads what we read, hear, or experience; rather, we use what’s in our head to help us understand new information and construct meaning.
For example, this chapter contains information about constructivism. As you read below you will use any related knowledge already contained in your LTM (semantic memory) along with your own experiences as learners (episodic memory) to help you construct or build a meaningful concept of constructivism. If you have an abundance of related knowledge and experiences this well be fairly easy. If you have very little related knowledge and experiences, you will have to work a little harder to build a meaningful concept. And since no two human experiences are alike, no two conceptions of constructivism will be exactly the same.
Learning
What is learning? Some descriptors that align with cognitive learning theory are provided below:.
Learning is an active process. When you build or construct something you can’t just sit in a chair. You have to do something. In the same way, a constructivist perspective sees learning as an active, not a passive process. You cannot be learned. You cannot be learned at. Nobody can learn you. Instead, you must learn. It is something you must actively strive to do.
To illustrate, if you are simply reading the words on this page without making any attempt to understand what the words might mean, it will be very hard for you to construct a meaningful concept. Instead, you need to be actively involved in constructing meaning. This means that as you read you have to (a) check for understanding as you read, (b) identify interesting or important ideas, (c) make a conscious effort to connect this information with what you already know about teaching and learning, (d) pause every once in a while to see if what you are reading makes sense, (e) connect the information to your own experiences, and then (f) think about possible applications for this new knowledge.
Real learning is meaningful. Here’s a question for you: If you memorized a list of psychological terms but you did not understand any of them would you have learned? Answer: yes. However, you would have engaged in what’s called rote learning, a very low quality of learning. This is when information is taken in but there are little or no connections to anything currently in LTM (see Figure 15.1). Rote learning does not lead to understanding or meaning and thus, is fairly useless. In order to understand new information it must be connected to information that is understood. This is called meaningful learning. As the name implies, meaningful learning has meaning or makes sense and it can be easily encoded, stored, retrieved, and applied. And, the more connections to known things that you can make the more meaningful this new information becomes. Thus we see the importance of a having a well-organized body of knowledge in the teaching and learning process (see below). We also see the importance of connecting the new to the known when you are introducing a new topic.
Figure 15.1. Rote and meaningful learning.
Memorizing is different from learning. We know that memory is important in learning. We need to be able to be able to hold new information in STM. We need to be able to encode and store new information in LTM. And, we need to be able to use knowledge currently existing in LTM in order to understand new information. But memorizing is not the same as learning. Again, you could memorize a list of psychological terms, but if they were meaningless you would not have learned anything. Real learning involves creating meaning. There are many memory strategies that can be helpful for recalling certain things (such as mnemonic devices). But these are simply memory tools. Do not confuse memorizing with learning. Whether reading, listening, doing, or experiencing, if you are not creating meaning you are not engaged in meaningful learning. Real learning is associated with something. To be meaningful it makes sense or carries some significance. To do this, new information must be connected to known information.
Learning is a cognitive process. As described above, learning takes place inside the head as new information combines with existing knowledge. This reflects Piaget’s description of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information adds to and enhances existing knowledge structures or schemas. From a neurological perspective, this would be when neural pathways are strengthened and neural networks are expanded. Accommodation occurs when new information conflicts with existing knowledge or does not match any existing knowledge structures or schemas. Old structures need to be modified. From a neurological perspective, this would be when new neural pathways are formed and new neural networks are created.
Since learning takes place inside the head, we can measure and observe only the effects of learning, but not learning itself. We can never fully account for the new knowledge structures created. As well, learning often goes far beyond what is taught or measured. That is, as students use their background knowledge and experience to infer and fill in the blanks, the whole of what they learn is usually far greater than the sum of the individual parts.
Learning is something humans do naturally. Humans are hard-wired to search for meaning. We have a natural tendency to make sense of their world, to look for patterns, and to creating meaning out of chaos. It is this natural tendency that has enabled our species to evolve from the earliest times. Piaget described children as natural scientists who explore their world. By acting upon the world the world acts upon them in terms of changing schema. When they encounter new information that coincides with existing schema it enhances or expands these cognitive structures (assimilation). When new information conflicts with current thinking it creates a state of disequilibrium that can only be resolved by reforming old structures or creating new ones (accommodation).
Learning is not a standardized process. Learners are not standardized products. Our brains are all unique. We all process information and learn a little bit differently. We all bring different knowledge and experiences to a learning experience. Since learning is not a standardized process, it would be silly to assume that teaching could be a standardized process. One size does not fit all when it comes to teaching strategies, pedagogy, approaches, or methodology. Thus, insisting that all teachers utilize a standard approach reduces the amount of real learning that takes place.
Learning is enhanced when it occurs in authentic situations or involves and authentic task. The goal is for students to be able use knowledge and skills, not in school environments, but out in the world (see ‘transfer’ below). Learners learn best when the knowledge and skills taught in the setting or situation in which they will be used or which replicate real life situations to the greatest degree. This is called situated learning. This means, instead of assigning a grammar worksheet with a list of fill-in-the blank questions we would ask students to write to express their ideas or describe their experiences (just like adults do in real life) and then teach grammar in the context of their authentic writing. Also, we would teach math and science using inquiry or problem-based learner (see Book II – Advanced Pedagogy).
The Importance of Knowledge
A constructivist view of learning places great emphasis on what students know. What you know affects what you might know. Since meaningful learning involves connecting the new to the known, the more we know the better we are able to learn. Among other things, a well-organized body of knowledge in LTM improves problem solving, reasoning, reading comprehension, and as we saw in Chapter 14, our ability to learn. Knowledge also affects our ability to perceive and remember (Goldstein 2008).
One of the differences between experts and novices in any field is an organized body of knowledge. Experts have acquired a great deal of content knowledge that is organized in LTM in ways that reflect a deep understanding of the subject matter. This organization helps them easily retrieve important aspect of knowledge when necessary with very little attention (automaticity). It also helps them notice patterns and use chunking when working with information in STM. In comparison, the knowledge base of a novice relative to a given area is shallow and disjointed.
An important part of any teacher’s job is to help students develop an organized body of knowledge. Some tips for this include the following:
• Teach using well-structured lessons that present knowledge in an organized fashion. Strive to create a logical sequence of instructional events and links activities to instructional objectives (Johnson, 2010).
• Use advanced organizers, graphic organizers, and concepts maps to show the structure of what is to be learned or what was learned. Advanced organizers show students the structure of or key points related to what is to be learned. Concept maps and graphic organizers show students the hierarchical structure of a concept and how one thing relates to another.
• Use a well-structured organized curriculum that includes planned redundancy of key concepts and important points.
• Instead of trying to cover too many subjects superficially, teach fewer subjects more in depth (NRC, 2000).
Constructivist Teaching
Constructivism is a theory that describes how people construct knowledge and create their view of the world (see below). There are a variety of teaching strategies that align with constructivism and could be considered to be constructivist teaching practices. These include: discovery learning, cooperative learning, inquiry learning, reading and writing workshop, and problem-based learning (described in Book II – Advanced Pedagogy). One of the biggest misconceptions of constructivist teaching is that it does not involve direct teaching, explicit instruction, or lecture/telling. This is not the case. The difference between constructivist teaching and some of the more top-down approaches is that a constructivist approach recognizes that providing organized, well-structured information is only one part of creating effective learning experiences.
A Constructivist Activity About ConstructivismIf I were using constructivist teaching practices in a classroom I would probably have students working in small groups of four students. They would start by brainstorming a list of things they know about teaching and learning. I would have them select the five most important ideas from their list. I would then show them a list of definitions of learning from a variety of theoretical perspectives (below). In small group students would be asked to select the three that seem to make the most sense to them. The conversation that takes place in these groups is an important part of the learning process. Conversation invites students to define what they know in order to communicate their ideas and negotiate and refine meaning as they seek to come to an agreement. Finally, I would give them a definition of constructivism. Their group would have 10 minutes to put together and explanation and mini-lesson related ton constructivism. One person would be chosen at random to get to another group and perform their group’s mini-lesson. Finally, I would fill in the plans with a short lecture. I would understand, however, the learning is not complete. I would need to revisit this concept in succeeding classes and design activities that got students actively engaged in using this concept.
Learning is . . .
1. acquiring new knowledge and skills.
2. acquiring new information or understanding.
3. a change in behavior that occurs as a result of instruction or experience.
5. being able to use new knowledge or skills to solve problems or create products.
6. being able to use new knowledge or skills to earn rewards and avoid punishment.
7. increasing one’s ability to use logic, reason, intuition, emotion and creativity to solve problems, make decisions, and come to know the world.
8. linking new knowledge to old knowledge to construct meaning.
9. a search for meaning.
10. an enhancement in thinking processes that result in improved performance and problem solving.
11. a change in the structure or content of knowledge stored in long term memory.
12. new behaviors or changes in behaviors that are acquired as the result of an individual’s response to stimuli.
13. developing new ways of thinking.
14. expanding consciousness.
15. the acquisition, organization, and storage of new knowledge.
16. a relatively permanent change in one’s skills, knowledge and/or attitude.
17. developing one’s full potential.
18. improving one’s ability to solve problems in ways that nurture the self, others, and the environment.
19. improving one’s ability to become attuned to and utilize the multiple dimensions of self.
20. a long term change in one’s mental framework due to instruction or experience.
21. being able to use new knowledge and skills in an authentic context.
Constructing Memories
What do you remember about what you did yesterday? Are you sure? Find a friend who may have shared an experience with you. Ask that friend to list the details of that experience while you do the same. Compare your lists. What do you notice about what was listed and in what order?
According to the constructivist view, human memory, like knowledge, is constructed using what we know and believe along with context, expectations, and past experiences (Sternberg & Williams, 2009). Even though we think we are remembering events from our lives exactly has they happened, our memories never exactly replicate. Instead, our memories reconstruct a version of reality using all the information and experiences stored in LTM. Just as we construct knowledge when we encode and store information, we do that same as we retrieve information from LTM. Because of the emotional content, episodic memories are especially susceptible to memory reconstruction.