PROFESSOR: Cotlin Gram-Negative Bacteria Page 1 of 7

CLASS: 11:00-12:00 Scribe: Bo Bradford

DATE: November 2, 2010 Proof: Megan Guntham

PROFESSOR: Cotlin Gram-Negative Bacteria Page 1 of 7

VII. BLOOD

a. blood smear of mostly red blood cells

VIII. HEMATOCRIT

a.  hematocrit= the volume of packed red blood cells in the blood; a.k.a. the conc. Of red blood cells

b.  volume of cells and plasma is 45% cells & 55% plasma- white blood cells only make up around 1% (very negligible)

c.  mens tend to have higher normal resting hematocrit, females generally have lower hematocrit due to monthly menstrual cycle

d.  after centrifugation of a blood sample we wood see packed erythocytes, leukocytes & plasma

e.  erythrocytes are more dense due to their iron so the red blood cells (RBC’s) pattern to the bottom of the tube after centrifugation, white blood cells will not due to lack of iron. This unique concentrated layer is often called the “Buffy Coat”

IX. COMPOSITION WHOLE BLOOD

a. whole blood is composed of connective tissue, it’s cells & extracellular matrix; the matrix is the plasma, again plasma is the liquid portion of blood & occupies 55% of whole blood

b before centrifuging a given blood sample, an anticoagulation factor is added to the sample which

prevents clotting. Plasma that LACKS coagulation factors is referred to as SERUM

c. Plasma – coagulation factors = SERUM

d. Again, 45% of whole blood is attributed to red blood cells, water & 7 % of proteins, some of which

include

1-ALBUMIN-which functions as a carrying protein (fats, hormones, small peptides) within blood, and also retains osmotic pressure

2- IMMUNGLOBULINS

3- FIBRINOGEN-acts as a clotting factor & is in an inactive but converted to active upon clotting

cascade event

4- REGULATORY PROTEINS- transport proteins & hormones

5- also have other molecules such as electrolytes, sugars, small peptides, gases, waste

f. WBC’s & platelets compose the last 1%

g. platelets are derived from cells called megakaryocytes,

h. 5 types of white blood cells

1-neutrophils (granulocytes)-the most abundant WBC’s

2- basophils (granulocytes)

3-eosinophils (granulocytes)

4-monocytes (agranulocytes)-phagocytic cells, that leave circulation get into tissues & become

macrophages

5- lymphocytes (agranulocytes)

i.  basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils are all involved with immediate immunity; they can secrete factors that can attack for bacteria & viruses

j.  macrophages are phagocytes & lymphocytes are involved with long term immunity

X. CARTILAGE

a. this is a section of cartilage; cartilage has unique characterisitics

b. cells found here are called CHONDROCYTES

c. purple-ish material is the matrix

XI. CARTILAGE II

a.  cartilage is part of the skeletal system, its involved with skeletal formation & allows for support, flexibility.

b.  provides precursor model for bone formation

c.  found in ear, nose, throat, all of our joints, in the resp. tract

d.  composed of cells & matrix; the primary collagen in cartilage is COLLAGEN II- bone mainly has

COLLAGEN I

e.  other than collagen II ,cartilage is composed of chondrocytes & chondroblasts

XII. FEATURES OF CARTILAGE

a.  in contrast to connective tissue, cartilage is avascular

b.  3 types of cartilage-HYALINE, FIBROCARTILAGE, & ELASTIC- that are all surrounded by a PERICHONDRIUM which allows cartilage to act as a sponge

c.  PERICHONDRIUM= dense connective tissue border around the cartilage (tissues of deep connective tissue that wraps around the cartilage)

d.  Within the cartilage, we have condrocytes that are housed within lacunae and are grouped into isogenic groups surrounded by inter-territorial matrix & secreting matrix. All of these groups are constantly dividing

e.  Cartilage gives us flexible support and acts as a shock & pressure absorber

f.  We can keep blood from circulation & lymphatics away from cartilage

g.  Water can diffuse into cartilage creating an influx & causing the cartilage to swell. Under pressure the cartilage can undergo compression, water will be release it’s content (glysoaminoglycans, etc.) outward into the environment.

h.  It is avascular because of its role, they are tightly bordered by the perichondrium which allows the cartilage to play its role

XIII.CHONDROCYTES W/ MATRIX

a.  picture of chondrocytes sitting within their respective lacunae

b.  Collagen type II is also represented in picture along with ground substance

XIV. TYPES OF CARTILAGE

a.  hyaline=most common found in the nose, surface end of joints, at the end of our bones, in our ribs, lining our resp. tract- trachi & bronchi

b.  elastic= found in ears, larynx; looks like hyaline but has a lot of elastic fibers instead

c.  fibrocartilage= is a mix that has chondrocytes that line up with one another & a lot of collagenous bundles. Found in the intervertebral disks of our spines, and in tendons and ligaments

XV. HYALINE CARTILAGE

a.  stain that colors cartilage blue

b.  perichondrium is highlighted around the clear colored CHONDROCYTES ( its dense & dark blue). Each condrocyte is free from contact from adjacent cells

c.  carilage is surrounded by dense connective tissue

d.  the white spaces surrounding the cartilage is due to natural seperation upon staining & sectioning.

XVI. ELASTIC CARTILAGE

a.  section of elastic cartilage that resembles hyaline, but enriched with elastic fibers

b.  rich in elastic cartilage

XVII. NO TITLE

a.

XVIII. FIBROCARTILAGE

a.  section of fibrocartilage

b.  notice the chondrocytes are organized into rows with one another

c.  rows of cartilage bundles as well

d.  provides additional strength by being a shock absorber & is stronger than the other two types

XIX. BONE TISSUE

a.  outer/ lateral layer of bone is lined with articular cartilage

b.  two types of mature bone: COMPOUND BONE & SPONGY BONE

c.  material to outside or lateral portion of pic is compact bone bone

d.  the middle portion of the bone with the white branches is spongy bone,

e.  the dark spaces in b/t is the bone marrow

f.  the main difference b/t cartilage & bone is the fact that bone is in fact very vascular

XX. FUNCTIONS OF BONE & TYPES

a.  bones function in support, protection, provide for locomotion, huge store of calcium, magnesium, sodium, houses all of our bone marrow (which is found in the interior of all long bones)

b.  refers back to previous slide & highlights bone marrow once more

c.  two types- COMPACT & SPONGY (CANCELLOUS)

d.  cancellous bone are fine irregular trabecular plates

e.  compact bone is highly ordered & contains HAVERSION SYSTEMS. Compact bone bares much of the weight.

XXI. COMPOSITION

a.  matrix has proteoglycans, collagen type I, and is enriched with over 50% inorganic material ( a lot of calcium phosphates) which gives rigidity to bone & is compromised in osteoporosis which is associated with the degradation of bone; you loose this matrix that gives rigidity to the bone.

b.  Looks solid & dead, but it’s very alive & always regenerating & remodeling

c.  HIGHLY vascularized

XXII. PRIMARY CELLS IN BONE

a.  osteoblasts- immature cells that are just beginning to secrete bone material/ matrix-don’t divide (osteoid=bone tissue)

b.  osteocytes- once the osteoblasts become trapped within matrix they become osteocytes-don’t divide; similar to the condrocytes that were discussed earlier

c.  osteoclasts- macrophages that degrade/ breakdown bone, important in bone remodeling as well as calcium regulation within the blood (bone acts as the store for calcium)

d.  as our skull is growing & reforming there is a continuum of bone being laid on the exterior by the osteoblasts & broken down on the inferioir by the osteoclasts

XXIII. BONE CELLS

a.  appearance of primary cells in a long bone

b.  compact with spongy bone in b/t

c.  osteoblasts are located on the lateral portion of the bone & osteocytes are trapped within bone formation

XXIV. BONE CELLS II

a. primary cells, bone marrow, compact & spongy bone are further highlighted here

XXV. GROUND BONE

a.  this is what ground bone, or compact bone really looks like; all that is left is the inorganic matter

b.  all brown spots represent where an osteocyte will be.

c.  This is what ground/compact bone looks like in contrast to spongy bone-spongy bone is just pieces of bones

XXVI. SPONGY BONE

a.  Section of spongy bone

b.  this is what the inside of long bones looks like

c.  it’s surrounded by compact/ground bone

XXVII. MUSCLE TISSUE

a.  section of skeletal muscle

b.  skeletal muscle has a very dense striated appearance due to the arrangement of its fibers

XXVIII.TYPES OF MUSCLE

a.  3 types

i.  SKELETAL- voluntary control, associated w/ bone & allows us to move (involved with the action of walking or balancing oneself) & is striated

ii. SMOOTH- involuntary controlled, involuntary control found lining GI tract (which controls peristasis), blood vessels, NO STRIATIONS

iii.  CARDIAC- involuntary controlled, found within the heart, striated

XXIX. COMMON FEATURES OF ALL MUSCLE TISSUE

a.  all muscle is from a MESODERMAL origin

b.  ER in muscle is called sarcoplasmic reticulum and has extremely HIGH concentrations of calcium sequestered inside itself .

c.  ER in muscle cells- SR- plays vital role in muscle contraction by regulating calcium for EACH contraction. All contractions, regardless of the type still depend upon actin & myosin.

d.  The cytoplasm in muscle is called the SARCOPLASM

XXX. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE

a.  skeletal muscle contraction is quick, forceful similar to cardiac but its under VOLUNTARY control

b.  skeletal muscle is bound by a connective tissue, most muscle is bundled within connective tissues

XXXI. STRUCUTRE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE

a.  EPIMYSIUM- surrounds the entire, whole bundle

b.  PERIMYSIUM- surrounds the intermediate, smaller bundles

c.  ENDOMYSIUM- surrounde the individual MUSCLE FIBERS

d.  Every muscle cell is under voluntary control & privately innervated by a respected neuron; there is NO communication b/t adjacent skeletal muscle cells

e.  If we’re talking about the bicep muscle, where talking about the entire bundle of muscle

f.  An individual muscle cell=muscle fiber or the individual cells that make up the whole muscle (tricep/bicep)

XXXII. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

a.  Striatied skeletal muscle

b.  alternating dark & light lines

c.  both skeletal muscle & cardiac muscle have this distinct banding pattern & this also gives the muscle the ability to generate quick, forceful contractions

XXXIII. EM OF STRIATED MUSCLE

a.  this banding pattern is nothing more than the arrangements of actin & myosin (other accessory proteins)

b.  there are repeating units present on the section shown; one of these individual repeating units is called a SARCOMERE.

XXXIV. SARCOMERE

a.  functional unit of skeletal/ cardiac muscle is the sarcomere; the smallest repetitive unit

b.  the dark lines in this section are known as the-Z LINES- which ultimately define the individual sarcomere

XXXV. ARRANGEMENT OF THICK & THIN FILAMENTS

a.  Simply, a sarcomere is just how the the actin & myosin filaments are arranged with one another

b.  green=actin (thin filaments)

c.  pink= myosin (think filaments)

d.  during muscle relaxation, there is only partial overlap; upon contraction the degree of overlap increases significantly, the size & length of filaments always stay the same.

XXXVI. MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRATION

a.  at rest we have a partial overalap of the myosin & actin fibers that are arranged in a particular pattern

b.  under contraction, we increase the degree to which the fibers overlap one another

c.  when the cell contracts, where just pulling things CLOSER together by the myosin heads grabbing the actin and pulling them together (tighter).

d.  When a muscle is relaxed- everything is extended; When a muscle is contracted- were just pulling everything tighter together

e.  Again, there are additional factors that keep the actin & myosin filaments the same lengths, they don’t dec. / inc. in size…only the spaces b/t them!

f.  ALL STRIATED MUSCLE IS JUST THIS CYCLING B/T STRETCHING AND CONTRACTIN MUCLES.

g.  Muscle function is a continuous process of holding the contraction, releasing, and holding again

XXXVII. SARCOMERE FUCTIONAL STAGES

a.  picture highlighting RELAXATION at the top of the schematic diagram, below the sarcomere is beginning to undergo contraction, and below the sarcomere is undergoing CONTRACTION.

XXXVIII. NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

a.  in skeletal muscle each individual muscle fiber ( she refers back to slide 31) is privately innervated by it’s own neuron

b.  Voluntary means that every skeletal muscle cell (muscle fiber) has a neuromuscular junction; which is very different from smooth muscle, each cell operates individually.

c.  The neurotransmitter involved @ these neuromuscular junctions is acetylcholine

d.  Every muscle cell within a biceps muscle is contacted/innervated by a nerve; this allows us to tell each individual cell what to do

XXXIX. CARDIAC MUSCLE

a.  striated muscle as well, has exact same sarcomere arrangement as skeletal muscle

b.  calcium, actin, myosin are also all involved

c.  Uniquely cardiac muscle has alot of brancing muscle fibers, which is different from skeletal & each fiber is joined by these intercalated disks

XL.CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

a.  Cardiac muscle needs to be involuntary, strong & forceful, and create a wave like contraction

b.  INTERCALATED DISKS-SPECIFIC TO CARDIAC MUSCLE

c.  all contractile elements are the same

d.  Intercalated disks provide connection between the muscle fibers in cardiac muscle, where as skeletal muscles have NO contact with one another (actually have Connective tissue in b/t them separating them from one another.

XLI. EM OF CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

a.  exact same arrangement as skeletal muscle of actin & myosin

b.  cells are interconnected by intercalated disks

c.  intercalated disks- junctions b/t cardiac cells

XLII. JUNCTIONAL OF INTERCALALTED DISK

a.  disks join adjacent cells via 2 types of adhering molecules: ZONULA ADHERENS & DESMOSOMES (which are the exact same junctions that she spoke about yesterday) both just keep connective tissues connected to one another; physically bind cells together

b.  gap junctions-allow for movement of substances b/t cells & form the tiny little pores b/t the cardiac muscle cells

XLIII. STRUCTURE OF THE INTERCALATED DISK

a. picture highlighting intercalated disk

c.  A single neuromuscular junction tells each individual cell to contract in skeletal muscle via depolarization; but in cardiac cells we don’t want independent control of each fiber. Instead, we have a set of fibers/cells that are all controlled by one nerve/neuron & since these cells are all connected to one another via these intercalated disks unique intercalated disks this allows for ions to flow from one cell to the next causing depolarization; creating a wave of contraction