ARGUMENT SYNTHESIS ESSAY 1A2
Argument is a rhetorical method of development whichoffers a logical, well-thought-out presentation of ideas that makes a claim about an issue and supports that claim with reasons and evidence. Its purpose is to convince or persuade.
Ex. For a health science course, you write an essay claiming that the results of genetic testing,
which can predict a person’s likelihood of contracting serious diseases, should be kept
confidential.
As a lawyer representing a client whose hand was seriously injured on the job, you must
argue to a jury that your client deserves compensation for the work-related injury.
Many sound arguments combine emotion with logic. An ineffective argument, however, would be one that is merely an irrational, emotional release of feelings and frustrations.
Synthesis is a rhetorical method of development which involves drawing together two or more sets of ideas and identifying similarities or differences in order to develop new ideas or to discover new insights about them.
Ex. To write a research paper in any college course, you will need to synthesize a variety of
sources. To prepare for class discussion, you will need to synthesize a variety of articles and
essays. And in order to study for tests, you will need to synthesize lecture notes and
textbook readings.
*Synthesizing sources in support of an argument is one of the key skills prospective
college students need to develop according to the Statement of Competencies (a
documentjointly published by the UC/CSU/CCC systems declaring what skills all students entering college should be proficient in in order to be successful in college.
If you are considering whether or not to donate an organ to a sick relative, you need to be
well-informed on the issue, so it will be necessary to research and compare two or more
viewpoints in order to make your decision.
Characteristics of an Argumentative Essay:
- This rhetorical pattern has three basic parts: an issue, a claim, and support. In most arguments it is also important to argue against opposing viewpoints, which is known as refuting.
*An issue is a controversy – a problem or idea about which people disagree.
*A claim is a statement that tells readers your position on the issue.
*Support refers to reasons – general statements that back up your claim. You can back up these reasons with different types of evidence(Refer to your Persuasion AcademicVocabulary List from 9th and 10th grades in the Persuasion section of your class notebook for these types of evidence).
- Analogies, Anecdotes, Facts, Statistics, Evidence-Based Research, Case Studies, Commonly Accepted Beliefs, Examples, Expert Opinions
- Considers the audience carefully since an argument is intended to influence readers’ thinking. Do they know a lot about your topic or will they need a lot of background information? Will they likely agree with your claim? Will they be neutral or waver on it? Or will they disagree with it?
*For agreeing audiences – presenting large amounts of evidence is not necessary; focus instead is usually on urging readers to take action by reinforcing your viewpoint, and building emotional ties with the audience.
*For neutral or wavering audiences – be straightforward. Emphasize the importance of the issue since they usually do not have strong feelings about it or even any interest at all. Offer explanations that clear up possible misunderstandings as they may have questions about it. Your goal is to establish your credibility by remaining objective, logical, and respectful to engender readers’ trust, and present solid evidence in support of your claim.
*For disagreeing audiences – your goal is to persuade readers to consider your views on the issue. This is the most challenging type of audience because they believe their own position is correct and are not eager to accept your views. They may also distrust you because you don’t share their views on something they care deeply about. Therefore, follow a logical line of reasoning. You may also consider building more slowly towards your thesis. First establish common ground – a basis of trust and goodwill – with readers by mentioning interests, concerns, and experiences that you all share. This may make them more open to considering your argument.
- Focuses on a narrowed issue that is arguable. Many issues are very broad in scope; for example, the issue of why prisons don’t work. This issue needs to be narrowed down to be addressed adequately enough in an essay-length argument; for example, focusing instead on why they are ineffective in making society safe.
- A narrowed issue will lead to a more precise and specificclaim, which is necessary to an effective argument. Avoid a general or absolute statement as your claim; the claim will be more convincing if you limit or qualify it.
Ex. Absolute statement: “Prisons Never Work” (not true)
Qualified statement: “Many Prisons Don’t Work”
- Uses reasons and evidence that will appeal to your audience.Clearly links evidence to your reasons to help the readers see how the evidence supports your claim.
- Avoids errors in reasoning (Refer to your Logical Fallacies List from 9th and 10th grades in the Persuasion section of your class notebook for these errors in reasoning).These errors can weaken your argument and call into question the believability of your supporting evidence.
- Can appeal to readers’ biological or psychological needs(food, sense of belonging, etc.) andvalues(honesty, loyalty, patriotism, etc.). Although an effective argument relies mainly on credible evidence and logical reasoning, emotional appeals can enhance and support a sound argument.
- Recognizes or counters opposing viewpoints, which makes readers more willing to take your point of view into account. You can do this in one of three ways:
*Acknowledgment: Admit that an opposing viewpoint exists and that you have given it serious consideration.
*Accommodation: Acknowledge readers’ concerns, accept some of them, and incorporate them into your own argument.
*Refutation: Demonstrate the weakness of the opponent’s argument to strengthen your own.
- Strategies for Refuting Evidence:
- Give a counter-example, or exception, to the opposite view
- Question the opponent’s facts
- Demonstrate that an example is not representative
- Demonstrate that the examples are insufficient proof
- Question the credibility of an authority
- Question outdated examples, facts, or statistics
- Present the full context of a quotation or group of statistical evidence if opponent quotes or cites incompletely or selectively
- Some argument essays include a call for action as well as support for a claim. Some writers make the call-to-action part of their overall claim; some do not make the call-to-action until their concluding paragraph.
Characteristics of a Synthesis Essay:
- As you move from reading and analyzing sources to integrating them into your own writing, you will engage in a process of selecting the excerpts you will use to support your own argument. This is often a complex step in which, ideally, you explore the individual texts and start to see the connections among them. Essential to this process is your willingness to understand each text on its own terms, even if you disagree with the ideas or position; in fact, texts that present viewpoints different from those you initially hold are often the ones that become most important to the development of your argument.
- Your argument needs to be central as you are demonstrating to your reader that you’ve carefully considered the issue by consulting a variety of sources. By doing this, you are establishing your own ethos / credibility with the reader.
- Recognize that it is difficult to change a reader’s mind, at least not radically or immediately. Instead, what you want to aim for is a compelling argument that leaves the reader thinking, questioning, considering, and reconsidering. To do this, you have to acknowledge that the issue at hand is a complex one with no easy solutions and a variety of valid perspectives on the matter.
- Present a reasonable idea in a voice that is logical, sincere, and informed. To write a qualified argument, you must anticipate objections to your position and recognize and respect the complexities of your topic. A reasonable voice recognizes that there are more than two sides to an issue – more than pro-con, which is the written equivalent of a shouting match.
Organizing an Argumentative Essay (Body Paragraphs):
- The reasons and evidence should follow a logical line of reasoning. The most common types of reasoning – induction and deduction – use evidence in different ways to arrive at a conclusion.
*Inductive Reasoning – starts with specific evidence and moves to a generalization or a conclusion.
*Deductive Reasoning – begins with observations or statements that are generally accepted as true. If the statements are accepted as true, then the conclusion derived from them is more likely to be perceived as logical.
4 Qs – Coherence for an Argumentative Essay:
- TRANSITIONS FOR CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
firstlast
secondafter that
nextfinally
CLAUSES OF TIME CAN BEGIN WITH:
whilebeforesince
asuntilfrom the moment that
when(ever)as soon as
- TRANSITIONS TO SHOW EXAMPLES
for example
for instance
to illustrate
- TRANSITIONS TO SHOW ADDITION
alsoin addition
furthermorebesides that
- TRANSITIONS TO SHOW COMPARISON / CONTRAST
likewisein the same waysimilar to
similarlyon the other handlike
converselyin contrasthowever
on the contrarydifferent fromin contrast to
whilewhereas
- CLAUSES OF CONCESSION (AGREEMENT) CAN BEGIN WITH
although
though
even though
- CLAUSES OF PURPOSE CAN BEGIN WITH
so that
- CLAUSES OF CONDITION CAN BEGIN WITH
if
- CLAUSES OF CAUSE CAN BEGIN WITH
because
since
- CLAUSES OF RESULT CAN BEGIN WITH
so/such…….that
- Always remember that in addition to such transition words and phrases, one can use SYNONYMS, PRONOUNS, the OLD-NEW PATTERN, and REPETITION of key words (S-P-O-R-T) to ensure that your ideas are well connected as you move from one sentence/paragraph to another.
Graphic Organizer for an Argument SynthesisEssay
Argument Synthesis1