An Inquiry on Higher-OrderThinking Skills of Students who had Study the Unit “Treasures of the Sea” Within “Science and Technology for All”
Danay Rakefet, The Department of Education in Technology and Science, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology. .
Lazarowitz Reuven, The Department of Education in Technology and Science. Technion - Israel Institute of Technology. .
Abstract One of the main goals in science education is to provide students who do not major in science with scientific and technology literacy and mastery of problem solving skill, which require formal reasoning ability.
In this study a learning unit "Treasures of the Sea" was developed and taught to 10th to 11th grade students. The learning unit was written in a STS approach based on the biome level of biological organization including modes of instruction.
In this study, non-major students were investigated on mastery of problem solving skills related to the "Treasures of the Sea" module. Data were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. Written/ open-ended tasks tests were developed for assessing the students’ performance on problem solving skills. The results revealed the progress students made while studying the module and the difficulties that non-major students encounter while learning integrated STS topics on the biome level of biological organization of the sea environment. The findings of the study provide new approach to master and assess open-ended problem solving skills, and suggest that science instruction should put more emphasis on the acquire of high cognitive skills using the strategy of solving problems step by step respectively to a specific biological topic, rather than the holistic mode. Teaching complex scientific ideas and developing high cognitive skills can provide students with the useful tools needed in order to function on a highly scientific and technology society life.
Keywords: problem solving, cognitive skills, cognitive reasoning, sea environment
Introduction
A major goal in science education is to develop the cognitive skills of all the students. Researchers are dealing with the question of how to include the mastery and understanding of science and technology literacy, and how tofoster thinking skills as a part of the science education of every citizen. (Zohar & Dori, 2003)
The Israeli curriculum “Science and Technology for All” intends to improve scientific and technological literacy of high school students who choose do not major in one of the science or technological disciplines. These students display a heterogeneous population. Studies have shown that 60% of the students in the high school are in the cognitive concrete operational stage and only 40% are in their formal stage, while skills such as: solving problems, critical thinking and creative thinking require formal reasoning operations (Shemesh & Lazarowitz, 1988; Valanides, 1996).
Solutions to the problem can be offered by developing appropriate curriculum materials and teaching strategies.Therefore identification of curriculum materials that support this learning and help teachers to build their own content and pedagogical knowledge is essential. (Stern & Roseman, 2004).
The module “Treasures of the Sea “ (Danay, Stoler, &. Tal, 2004).
The module described the environment of thesea from different aspects – oceanography, physics, chemistry, biology, aqua-culture and by human impact on the sea environment.
The originality of this module is in the integration of the sea environment topics in a biological level of organization, the biome, (as described by Schwab, 1963), blending with pedagogical modes of instruction based on the ScienceTechnology and Society (STS) approach.
The study goals
In this study, the academic achievement, the mastering of problem solving skills and learning difficulties of non major science students in the context of the high ecological level, the biome, were investigated and evaluated, while the module was taught.
Methodology
The study was conducted in seven classes, with 150 students (16 to 17 years old) .The students learned the module during 50 periods.
Data were collected with instruments using qualitative and quantitative methods. The instruments enabled the identification of the following:
Students’ background: school sector, class level, gender and stages of cognitive development. Students’ performance on VTGT test (Shemesh Lazarowitz, 1988) was used for assessing students' formal reasoning stages.
The dependent variables were investigated with 1. A test for assessing the academic achievement. 2. A written/ open-ended tasks test for assessing the students’ performance on problem solving skills. 3. Interviews carried out with the students. 4. Classroom observations and conversations with teachers
Curriculum material: The module was analyzed for the presence of tasks on solving problems skills and their relevancy to the subject of the sea environment, the biome, presented in a STS approach. (Bybee, 1987).
Teaching strategies: teachers' personal and professional background, teachers’ in- service training, the modes of their instruction, and their behaviors in the classroom lessons’ by the researcher's observations.
In this summary we focus specifically on the following theme: solving a problem step by step or in a holistic mode. In the written/ open-ended tasks students were asked to solve the problem step by step or in a holistic mode. A case study was presented with six step by step assignments, which included: posing questions,identify outcomes of the problems, identify problems, think of new problems that may occurred, formulate possible solutions and implications of the solutions. In a holistic mode, students were asked to write a letter to a friend about the problems and to pay attention to the entire problem solving procedure.
The pre- and posttests were similar in their structure and number of items, but not identical. Three science educators validated the tests and decided on the scoring scheme.
Scoring rubrics is the method in this research for evaluating student work. It guides the analysis of the processes of students' written/ open-ended tasks. Scoring rubric has several components: dimensions that serve as the basis for judging the student response. Every dimension includes criteria for assessing. Criteria have definitions and examples to clarify the meaning of each criterion (Birenbaum, 1997).
Results
Students’ performance on VTGT test (ShemeshLazarowitz, 1988) was used for assessing students' formal reasoning stages and the result are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Percentages of students on the cognitive reasoning stages from the sample study.
The results show:
Percentages of students, at the different stages of cognitive development: 48% concrete, 39% transitional and 13% formal (N=112).
Data were analyzed for mastery of skills, which are included in the dimensions of problem solving procedure, system thinking, and cognitive level according to the Bloom taxonomy (Bloom, 1956). None significantdifferences between students in the cognitive reasoning stages.
Students’ mean scores in the achievement of this dimensions, step by step or holistic mode pre and post-test were treated with a Mann-Whitney tests, and are presented in tables 1-3.
Table 1
Mean Scores and Mann-Whitney Tests for Problem Solving Skills Step by Step or Holistic Mode in Preand Post-Test in The Dimension: Problem Solving Procedure.
Dimension / Criteria / Pre-test. / Post-testStep by Step
M (sd) / Holistic Mode
M (sd) / Z(P) / Step by Step
M (sd) / Holistic Mode
M (sd) / Z(P)
Problem solving procedure / Asking question / 4.04
(1.44 ) / 0.15
(0.49 ) / -13.720 (0.000) / 4.43 (1.38 ) / 0.11
(0.36 ) / -13.341 (0.000)
Identify outcomes of theproblems / 1.18 (0.56) / 1.84 (1.43) / -2.171 (0.030) / n.s
Identify problems / 0.70 (0.46) / 0.43 (0.50) / -4.249 (0.000) / 0.83 (0.38) / 0.54 (0.50) / -4.678 (0.000)
Identify the mainproblem / 0.46
(0.50) / 0.26
(0.44) / -3.288 (0.001) / 0.59
(0.49) / 0.40
(0.49) / -2.860 (0.004)
Raise new problems / 1.50
(1.14) / 1.63
(1.15) / -9.031 (0.000) / 0.39
(0.99) / 0.49
(1.08) / -8.446 (0.000)
Formulate possible solutions / 1.51
(1.22) / 0.75
(0.99) / -5.471 (0.000) / 1.85
(1.15) / 0.90
(0.98) / -6.150 (0.000)
Implications of the solutions / 1.19
(1.21) / 0.22
(0.49) / -7.629 (0.000) / 2.11
(1.63) / 0.48
(0.78) / -8.586 (0.000)
No answer / 0.18
(0.39) / 0.37
(0.48) / -4.697 (0.000) / 0.12
(0.33) / 0.30
(0.46) / -4.997 (0.000)
The results show:
In the dimension of problem solving procedure (table 1) in the criteria: asking question, identify problems, identify the main problem, formulate possible solutions and implications of the solutions, when students used the step by step approach they achieved significantly higher mean scores than when they used the holistic mode. In the criteria: identify outcomes of the problems and raise new problems students achieved significantly lower mean scores.
Table 2
Mean Scores and Mann-Whitney Tests for Problem Solving Skills Step by Step or Holistic Mode in Preand Post-Test in The Dimension: Cognitive Levels.
Dimension / Criteria / Pre-test. / Post-testStep by Step
M (SD) / Holistic Mode
M (SD) / Z(P) / Step by Step
M (SD) / Holistic Mode
M (SD) / Z(P)
Cognitive level / Highcognitive level / 1.02
(1.21) / 0.53
(0.55) / -3.447 (0.001) / 1.45
(1.42) / 0.65
(0.48) / -5.423 (0.000)
Low Cognitive level / 0.92
(1.24) / 0.42
(0.50) / -3.499 (0.000) / 0.77
(1.19) / 0.28
(0.45) / -4.077 (0.000)
No answer / 0.18
(0.39) / 0.37
(0.48) / -4.697 (0.000) / 0.12
(0.33) / 0.30
(0.46) / -4.997 (0.000)
The results show:
In the dimension of cognitive level (see table 2) when students used the step by step approach, they achieved significantly higher mean scores than they had used the holistic mode. In the criteria:no answer, students achieved significantly higher mean scores when they used the holistic mode than when they used the step by step approach.
Table 3
Mean Scores and Mann-Whitney Tests for Problem Solving Skills Step by Step or Holistic Mode in Preand Post-Test in The Dimension: System Thinking.
Dimension / Criteria / Pre-test. / Post-testStep by Step
M (SD) / Holistic Mode
M (SD) / Z(P) / Step by Step
M (SD) / Holistic Mode
M (SD) / Z(P)
System thinking / Society / n.s / n.s
Science / n.s / n.s
Technology / n.s / n.s
Aspectccombination / 0.35
(0.48) / 0.48
(0.50) / -2.894 (0.004) / 0.49
(0.50) / 0.61
(0.49) / -2.277 (0.050)
The results show:
In the dimensions of system thinking (see table 3) there were no significant differences in the criteria: society, science and technology. In the criteria:aspectcombination(twoof:society, science and technology) students achieved significantly lower mean scores when they used the step by step approach than when they used the holistic mode.
Discussion and implications
The research has brought up a variety of issues related to teaching higher order cognitive skills for non-majors in science (Zohar, & Dori, 2003). These students had difficulties in the holistic problem solving approach. But students made progress after learning the module.
In most of the criteria, there were higher mean scores in using the strategy of solving problems step by step. Higher mean scores were in the holistic problem solving approach, only when students had to use low cognitive skills or complexity thinking: identification of outcomes of a problem requires to be a good knowledge teller. Raising new problems and aspect combination of system thinking, required generating new ideas, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation and integration of new information related to prior knowledge.
Scientific literacy is used in problem solving. Promote scientific literacy could be seen as part of the larger project of literacy development and promotion. If the reader has failed to grasp the scientific meaning beyond the surface content level he/she failed to grasp science. (Norris & Phillips, 2003)
Most of the problems in our lives are open-ended problems. According to Hurst & Milkent, (1996), unsuccessful students tend to tackle a problem haphazardly and rarely review their answers for inconsistencies. It can be hypothesized that, if students are given the experience of working on open-ended problems step by step in learning science, they would be better prepared and equipped to face real-world challenges in their future.
Educational significance of the research
The study provides new approach on assessing open- ended problem solving skills.
These findings suggest that science instruction should put more emphasis: on developing problem solving skills using the strategy of solving problems step by step respectively to the specific problem; on teaching complex scientific ideas, since students who receive this mode of instruction may be provided with the opportunity to think independently and in creative and original ways.
References
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Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. London:
Longmans.
Danay, R., Stoler, A. & Tal, T. (2004). Treasures of the Sea. Department of Education in Technology and Science,
Technion IIT, Haifa, Israel (in Hebrew).
Hurst, R. W. & Milkent, M. M. (1996). Facilitating successful prediction problem solving in biology through
application of skill theory. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(5), 541-552.
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Appendix
1: Example of one item from the academic achievement test
- What is the source of the oxygen in the water that is required for the seaweed?
- The seaweed detaches the water molecules, and gain oxygen.
- The seaweed receives oxygen from the liquefied oxygen in the water.
- The seaweed uses the excess oxygen within their body's, the outcome of the photosynthesis process.
- The seaweed does not require oxygen because they do not breathe underwater.
2: Description of A written/ open-ended tasks test for assessing the students’ performance on problem solving skills.
A case study was presented with six step by step assignments, which included: posing questions,identify outcomes of the problems, identify problems, think of new problems that may occur, formulate possible solutions and implications of the solutions. In a holistic mode, students were asked to write a letter to a friend about the problems and to pay attention to the entire problem solving procedure.
The pre- and posttests were similar in their structure and number of items, but not identical.
3: Example of one item from the video-taped group test (VTGT) (ShemeshLazarowitz, 1988) that used for assessing students' formal reasoning stages.
- There are two red squares and four yellow squares in a bag. What are the odds of pulling out a red square?
- 1 out of 1 (100%)
- 1out of 2 (50%)
- 1 out of 3 (33.3%)
- 1 out of 4 (25%)
- 1 out of 6 (16.66%)
Explain:______
1