Mr. McCormack
American Government
Central Dauphin High School
Chapter Seventeen – Foreign Policy and National Defense
I. Foreign Affairs and National Security
A. “Foreign policy” refers to those statements and actions of a national government that affect its relations with other countries
1. Foreign affairs can be distinguished from domestic affairs, which take place inside a country
2. Foreign affairs and domestic affairs can have great influence on each other
3. A nation’s foreign policy can be observed in a variety of areas
a. Military activities
b. Aid or assistance to other countries
c. Immigration and travel policies
d. Trade and investment
e. Treaties and membership in international organizations like the UN
4. Private citizens attempting to conduct diplomacy violate federal law
B. There are two prevailing tendencies in foreign policy
1. Isolationism
a. Advocates limiting national involvement in world affairs
b. This was the prevailing tendency in American history until WWII
c. No prominent American politicians or parties are associated with this belief
2. Internationalism
a. Advocates maximizing national involvement in world affairs
b. This has been the prevailing tendency in American history since WWII
C. The Executive Branch of the federal government is primarily responsible for setting foreign policy
1. The State Department
a. Headed by the Secretary of State
i. In 2009, Hillary Clinton
ii. Nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate
iii. First ranking member of the president’s cabinet
iv. First Secretary of State – Thomas Jefferson, 1789
v. First Female Secretary of State – Madeleine Albright, 1997
vi. First African American Secretary of State – Colin Powell, 2001
b. Originally named the “Department of Foreign Affairs,” the name was changed to State after a few months in 1789
c. This department has the primary responsibility of helping the president to develop and conduct the nation’s foreign policy
i. The department has very few domestic responsibilities
ii. Throughout history it has overseen the census, published laws, and issued patents, before those responsibilities were assigned to other departments
d. Organization and Components
i. The department is organized along both geographic and functional lines
1. Geographic – Bureau of African Affairs, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs
2. Functional – Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement, Bureau of Consular Affairs
ii. Foreign Service
1. There are nearly 6,000 diplomats who represent the United States
2. Under international law, every state enjoys the right of legation (the right to send and receive diplomatic representatives)
3. America’s first diplomat, Benjamin Franklin, Minister to France, was appointed by the Continental Congress in 1778
4. America’s first “ambassador” was not appointed until 1893
iii. Ambassadors
1. Ambassadors are the official representatives of the United States appointed by the president to conduct diplomacy
a. Ambassadors are officially known as Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary
b. When no ambassador has been appointed, the second-in-command acts in his place and is known as the Charge d’Affaires
2. Ambassadors serve in embassies situated in their host nation’s recognized capital
3. The United States has established embassies in more than 180 countries
4. The United States also establishes consular offices abroad
a. There are more than 120 of them established
b. They work to encourage trade, gather intelligence, advise prospective immigrants, and aid American tourists
5. Many ambassadorships are seen as rewards for political supporters
iv. Special Diplomats
1. US Representatives to the UN and NATO are also treated like ambassadors
2. Presidents also confer the rank of ambassador on diplomats undertaking special assignments (attending a conference, etc.)
v. Passports
1. Certificates issued to citizens granting permission to travel abroad
2. Visas are permits to enter a country
3. The State Department issues about 8 million passports a year
4. Since the start of 2007, even Americans returning from Canada need to display a passport
vi. Diplomatic Immunity
1. A sovereign state is supreme within their boundaries, and some of this supremacy was attached to the personal representatives of the state even when they traveled beyond those boundaries
2. Countries agree not to arrest or tax visiting ambassadors, who are also immune from civil liability
3. Embassies become part of the sovereign territory of the sponsoring nation, so they can not be searched or seized for any reason
4. Official communications, papers, and property are similarly sacrosanct
5. Ambassadors that abuse these privileges can be expelled
6. The most serious modern breach of this immunity came in 1979, when Iranian Revolutionaries seized the American embassy and held 53 Americans for 444 days
2. The Defense Department (DoD)
a. Headed by the Secretary of Defense
i. In 2009, Robert Gates
ii. Nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate
iii. The Secretary of Defense, by law, may not have served in any active duty branch of the armed forces in the ten years preceding his appointment
b. Formed from two previous departments, War and Navy
c. Largest federal department measured by employees
i. 1.4 million service members
ii. 700,000 civilians
d. The DoD receives about 25% of the federal budget each year
e. The United States has a strong tradition of civilian control over the military
f. The DoD headquarters are at the Pentagon
i. Largest office building in America
ii. Built in the shape of a pentagon (five-sided)
iii. Located in Virginia just outside of Washington, DC
g. Joint Chiefs of Staff
i. The five members are the heads of the four military branches and a Chairman
1. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
2. Chief of Staff of the Army
3. Chief of Naval Operations
4. Commandant of the Marine Corps
5. Air Force Chief of Staff
ii. These branch heads are the highest ranking uniform officers in the service
iii. Appointment as a branch head requires Senate confirmation
D. Military Departments
1. There are three independent military departments
a. Army
i. Largest and oldest branch of the military
ii. Established by the Continental Congress, June 14, 1775
iii. Responsible for military actions on land
iv. Three components
1. Regular Army
a. The US Army now numbers more than 500,000 personnel
b. During the Cold War there were more than 700,000 personnel
c. Women now serve in most army occupations
2. Army Reserves
3. Army National Guard
a. Every state’s National Guard units serve two missions – state and federal
b. Unlike previous wars, the National Guard now plays a major combat role in the Global War on Terror
b. Navy
i. Established by the Continental Congress, October 13, 1775
ii. Responsible for sea warfare
iii. Today numbers around 435,000 personnel
c. Air Force
i. Existed as part of the Army from 1907 to 1947
ii. Responsible for air and aerospace operations
iii. Today numbers around 360,000 personnel
d. Each is led by a civilian Secretary, appointed by the President
2. Two other branches of the military exist
a. Marines
i. Located in the department of the Navy
ii. Established by the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775
iii. Today includes some 170,000 personnel
iv. Responsible for land operations essential to naval campaigns
b. Coast Guard
i. Located in the department of Homeland Security
ii. The President may direct that the Coast Guard become part of the Navy, especially in time of war
iii. Today includes around 35,000 personnel
iv. Responsible for patrolling the territorial waters of the United States
1. Counter-drug and counter-smuggling activities
2. Rescue operations
3. Border security
II. Other Foreign and Defense Agencies
A. Many agencies also contribute to national security and defense
1. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA, “the agency”)
a. Established by Congress in 1947
b. Works under the direction of the National Security Council
c. Led by a Director that is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate
d. Three major tasks
i. Coordinate the foreign information-gathering activities of all federal agencies
ii. Analyze and evaluate all data collected by those agencies
iii. Brief the president and National Security Council on that intelligence
e. Espionage Activities
i. Much intelligence may be gathered from open sources like newspapers, radio broadcasts, etc.
ii. The CIA gathers other intelligence through secret, covert operations
f. The budget of the CIA is largely disguised, so even Congress has only a vague idea about its operations
g. Laws prohibit the CIA from conducting any investigation, surveillance, or other clandestine activities within the United States
2. Department of Homeland Security
a. Created by Congress in 2002 by combining agencies from other departments
i. Secret Service (Treasury)
ii. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (Treasury)
iii. Coast Guard (Transportation)
iv. Transportation Security Administration (Transportation)
v. Immigration and Naturalization Service (Justice)
vi. Federal Emergency Management Agency (independent)
b. Charged with protecting the United States from acts of terrorism
c. Responsible five main functions
i. Border and transportation security
ii. Infrastructure protection
iii. Emergency preparedness and response
iv. Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense
v. Information analysis
d. The challenge facing the department is enormous
i. 600,000 bridges
ii. 170,000 water systems
iii. 2,000 power plants (104 nuclear ones)
iv. 220,000 miles of railroad tracks
v. 190,000 miles of natural gas pipelines
vi. 25,000 miles of waterways
vii. 1,000 harbor channels
viii. 463 skyscrapers over 500 feet tall
ix. 19,000 airports
x. 20,000 miles of border
xi. Food supply
xii. Healthcare system
xiii. Communications network
3. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
a. Independent agency created by Congress in 1958
b. Mission includes exploration of space and basic research
c. NASA has been directed to work for peaceful as well as military purposes
d. Manned space flight
i. Began during the space race with the Soviet Union
ii. Most spectacular moment – Moon Landing, July 20, 1969
iii. Set back by Challenger (1986) and Columbia (2003) shuttle disasters
iv. Currently pursuing International Space Station
v. Plans are being made for a Mars mission in the near future
B. Selective Service System
1. The modern military relies on voluntary enlistments to fill the ranks
2. Through much of history, especially in time of war, the US relied on conscription
a. Several colonies (later nine states) passed laws requiring able-bodied men to serve in the militia
b. Congress rejected such a law in the 1790s
c. Limited conscription programs were used during the Civil War
d. First major draft was in 1917, for WWI
i. Selective Service Act of 1917
ii. More than 2.8 million of the 4.7 million who served were drafted
e. Second major draft ran from 1940 to 1947
i. Selective Service and Training Act of 1940
ii. First peace-time draft in American history
iii. More than 10 million of the 16.3 million who served were drafted
f. Third major draft ran from 1948 to 1973
i. Selective Service Act of 1948
ii. Nearly 5 million men were drafted to fight in Korea and Vietnam
3. Although the draft has been suspended since 1973, the law is still in force and could be revived
a. Only males between 18.5 and 26 years of age are currently subject to a draft
b. The law is administered by local selective service boards
c. Failure to register by your 18th birthday can result in penalties
4. Only an act of Congress could revive the draft
5. The Supreme Court has found the draft to be constitutional (1918, 1981)
III. American Foreign Policy Overview
A. From Independence to WWI
1. Isolationism more or less prevailed in American foreign policy for about 150 years
a. Although Americans traded and traveled abroad, the government was more interested in expanding in North America than in becoming entangled in world affairs
b. Early presidents like Washington and Jefferson, realizing the nation’s military weakness, cautioned against becoming too concerned with foreign affairs
2. Monroe Doctrine
a. Announced to Congress in 1823
b. Designed to protect newly independent countries in South America from re-colonization by Europe
c. The Monroe Doctrine was enforced more by the British Navy than by the United States for most of the nineteenth century
3. Continental Expansion
a. Opportunities for westward expansion were guaranteed to the newly independent states by the Treaty of Paris in 1783
i. Many American settlers had already moved into the frontiers of the “Old Northwest Territory”
ii. Only Native Americans contested the US claim to the area south of the Great Lakes
b. Jefferson doubled the size of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803
c. Spanish Florida was purchased in 1819
d. Texas was annexed in 1845
e. Oregon Territory was split with Great Britain in 1846
f. The Southwest was ceded by Mexico after a brief war, in 1848
g. The Gadsden Purchase (part of New Mexico and Arizona) occurred in 1853
h. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867
i. At the time it was considered worthless territory
1. Seward’s Folly
2. Seward’s Icebox
ii. Price: $7.2 million
i. A French attempt to install a puppet emperor in Mexico was defeated in 1867
j. Most Americans believed it was their “Manifest Destiny” to rule an empire that spread across the continent, connecting both the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean
4. World Power
a. Commodore Matthew Perry convinced the Japanese to open trade with the US in 1853
b. The Spanish American War established the US as a first-class power in 1898
c. Captured Spanish territory included Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam
d. Cuba gained its independence with a promise of American protection
e. Hawaii was annexed in 1898
f. The United States insisted on the Open Door Policy in China in 1899
i. Instead of dividing the country into zones of control, every country would have equal access to its trade
ii. All of the other colonial powers agreed to let the Chinese retain control over their territory
iii. One consequence of this policy was a worsening of relations between Japan and the United States
g. The United States began to intervene to ensure stability in Latin America
i. Suppress revolutions, injuries to foreign nationals, and pay debts
ii. Marines invaded Nicaragua, Haiti, and Cuba
iii. This policy was called the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine