18
1948-c.1956
THE RISE OF NASSER
THE NARRATIVE 1948-1956
1948: Disaster: Egypt lose war with Israel.
1950: King calls for elections. Wafd win. Nahhas Pasha is PM.
1951: Nahhas Pasha abrogates the 1936 treaty with Britain. This led to skirmishes with the British army.
The British attacked the police barracks at Isma ‘iliyya, killing 50 people.
1952: January 26, Black Saturday: riots in Cairo.
As we shall see, whilst Black Saturday might be called the trigger, the actual coup d’etat took place some 6 months later. Moreover, the group of Free Officers who carried it out were not just rioting. They had a plan, what they called a Six Point Agenda. This Six Point Agenda tapped into the deeper longer standing causes of unrest – the socio-economic problems in Egypt. (See below – and remember that these ‘longer standing socio-economic causes of unrest can be used as long term causes of the revolution.)
1952: July 23, coup d’état.
2 of the ‘Free Officers involved were Nasser and Sadat.
This is known as the Revolution of 1952.
This coup d’etat of July 2”rd 1952 is what you refer to when talking of the Revolution in 1952. It began with a coup d’etat (though as I said earlier, you could conceivably argue that the trigger was Black Saturday.)
The Free Officers:
It is often said to have been carried out by a group called the Free Officers. : they were all from either lower class or middle class backgrounds. In other words, they were unlike the richer families in Egyptian society – not simply because they were not rich, but because they had not done so well from British rule.
These Free Officers were all against 2 things: (a) the old British political and social elite and (b) the old Egyptian political and social elite.
Nasser himself was from a poor background.
He saw the ‘Disaster’ of the defeat by Israel as the fault of King Faruq and co.
As the Free Officers were all quite young, they asked Naguib, who was older, to be the figurehead leader.
ONE THING YOU WILL ALWAYS SAY (in passing) ABOUT THE FREE OFFICERS IS :
The ‘Free Officers’ had a 6 point programme but no preconceived political or ideological programme. (They were anti-imperial, anti-feudalism, pro strong army, social justice and democratic society)
Once in, they set up the RCC which became the executive arm of government.
(i) get rid of rival contenders for power ie King Faruq. Sent him to the Riviera.
(ii) win popular support via proclaiming reforms and introducing a constitution.
POLITICAL NARRATIVE FROM 1952 ONWARDS:
1953: the monarchy was abolished, Egypt declared a republic.
King Faruq was a scandal. On top of that, he had lost the Arab-Israeli war. Faruq was the last ruler of the descendants from Mohummad Ali.
1953 : January 16th, the officers of the RCC abolished the constitution abolished and all political parties, including Wafd. They declared a three-year transitional period during which the RCC will rule.
Therefore Egypt became a one party state. However, as we shall see, they called it a republic.
They then set up the Liberation Rally, a political organisation. Its aim was to recruit new comers to the one party state.
On 18 June, the RCC declared Egypt a republic, abolishing the monarchy and appointing General Muhammad Naguib, aged 52, as first president and prime minister. Gamal Abdel-Nasser, 35, was appointed deputy premier and minister of the interior.
1954: a decree barred anyone from government who had previously ruled. (SEE ABOVE – THIS DISTANCED HIS REGIME FROM THE OLD REGIME)
Members of the ancient regime were put on trial.
Whilst there was an early phase of co-operation between RCC and Muslim Brotherhood, in 1954, one of the Muslim Brothers tried to assassinate Nasser. The RCC (Revolutionary Command Council) outlawed the Muslim Brotherhood and executed 6 leaders.
THE FINAL PART OF NASSER’S RISE:
1954: there was a struggle for the leadership between Naguib and Nasser, as well as a struggle between the RCC and the Muslim Brotherhood. Nasser won.
Gamal Abdel-Nasser took power, first as chairman of the RCC and prime minister, with Naguib's constitutional position remaining vague until 14 November, when he was dismissed from office and placed under house arrest. Naguib under house arrest until 1984. (Nasser could be ruthless when required)
1954: There was a strike at a textile plant in Alexandria which was put down, and the Communist Party crushed.
Nasser appoints his friend Amwar El Sadat Chief of Armed forces. So the RCC has the support of the army behind them.
1956: a new Constitution announced. – a 350 member assembly to be elected; bill of rights
However, it was still a one party state.
National Union replaced the Liberation Rally and chose all candidates for the assembly. President had extensive powers.
June 1956 plebiscite. Nasser gets 99.9 % votes.
(women permitted to vote)
IF ASKED TO EXPLAIN THE RISE OF NASSER
LONG TERM CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF NASSER
1.
Treaty of 1936 meant GB controlled Egyptian foreign policy. This lack of independence was fuelling popular discontent in Egypt
But GB worried about Suez Canal.
2. King Faruq was a scandal.
3. The Wafd was hopeless.
4. A shorter term political cause was the fact that he had also lost the Arab-Israeli war.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CAUSES/PRECONDITIONS
These are the socio-economic pre-conditions (long-term causes) which help explain Nasser’s rise to power/the 1952 revolution/Nasser’s popularity (because he promised then actually tried to do something about them)
The trigger of the revolution is, arguably, January 26, 1952. This is known as ‘Black Saturday’. These were riots in Cairo. The British killed loads of Egyptians.
Soon after Nasser and his ‘Free Officers’ organise their coup d’etat.
The coup d’etat took place on July 23rd 1952.
Two of the officers involved were Nasser and Sadat.:
But there were wider socio-economic conditions with played an equally important role in the revolution and the rise of Nasser.
What follows are arguably the political and socio-economic preconditions of the revolution.
In other words, the revolution is unthinkable without these things.
In other words, they were necessary causes.
However, they are not sufficient in themselves to explain the revolution of 1952, in particular why it took place in 1952.
1. There was a social problem which consisted of a huge disparity between the few very rich (represented by the Wafd party) and loads very poor people.
0.4% of population owned 35% of cultivable land.
The average size of a portion of land was 170 fedans.
94% owned only 0/8 feddan. Small proprietors going into debt and ended up selling their land. At which point they became landless.
Landless labourers were already over half of the population.
Wafd leaders, who got their wealth from land, did nothing about it.
2.Rising urban poverty of workers in Cairo and Alexandria.
Limited post-war social legislation did little to alleviate things.
3. Nasser was from peasant/lower class background, so had more sympathy with the lower classes than the sort of people who led the
Country. The Wafd leaders, many of whom got their wealth from land, did nothing about the socio-economic problems of the peasants.
Just before the revolution, the poverty of urban workers was rising in Cairo and Alexandria.
POLITICAL/RELIGIOUS CAUSES OF 1952 REVOLUTION
Prior to Nasser’s coup, there was an expansion of the Muslim Brotherhood.
It had 500,000 members by late 1940s. They were calling for independence (from Imperial Britain) and social reform.
They had grievances about Egypt’s political system and political parties and leaders. Proof of this is that they assassinated Prime Minister Mahmud Fahmi al-Nuqrashi. Then the leader of Muslim Brotherhood, Hasan al-Banna, was murdered by ruling government.
These two facts can be used to show how politically unstable Egypt was becoming.
CONCLUSION
The revolution of 1952 was a combination of long term anti-imperialism, military disaster, huge socio-economic disparities, much of which the likes of the Muslim Brotherhood were using to win people to their side. But above all a deep political instability, be it in the form of the Wafd or King Faruk. The antidote to this came to be embodied in the personas of the Free Officers, in particular Nasser.
NASSERISM
Now we are going to look at Nasser’s domestic policy and his foreign policy.
Nasser became so famous for what he did that his policies were given a name called ‘Nasserism’
1952-1956
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL REFORMS OF RCC
1952: the Agrarian Reform Law (September): This led to a huge redistribution of land. It stated that the most land any individual could own was 200 feddans.
As we have seen earlier, 6% of the population owned 70% of the land) 0.4% of population owned 35% of cultivable land. The average size of a portion of land was 170 fedans. 94% owned only 0/8 feddan. Small proprietors going into debt and ended up selling their land.
The aim was to share out the land more equally and take from those who had lots of land and give it to those who had very little.
The surplus land that this created was then taken by state for redistribution to those who owned less than 5 feddans.
The landlords from whom this surplus land was taken were to be compensated in government bonds. Royal lands were also included in this and they were also redistributed.
The new government was not communist, but this was a policy that many socialists would have applauded.
SOCIAL REFORM
Other laws abolished all civil titles (Pasha, bey).
This is another policy that socialists would have applauded. The idea behind it to get rid of all the social hierarchies which were associated with the privilege and corruption and social injustices of the previous regimes in Egypt.
ARAB SOCIALISM
Nasser took these socialist policies even further.
As said above, Nasser and the Free Officers were no Communists.
An example of their adherence to a capitalistic economic system is the fact that in their early years they had offered incentives to foreign and local private investors.
The problem was that Egypt was not attractive for foreign investors.
But after break up of UAR in 1961 they said that they needed to adopt elements of socialism. They called it Arab Socialism.
As there were problems getting foreign investment they decided to take over everything themselves. They called it State Capitalism (not Marxist socialism based on class conflict)
1961-64 Everything nationalised, including the press.
1960 First 5 year Plan. Increase in textile food and beverages production.
CRITICISM:
The large scale steel plants like ar Helwan were only moderately successful.
Like most centrally planned things, it lacked quality control, too many managers etc.
Land reclamation schemes were not that successful either.
However, the Aswam dam reclaimed 650,000 feddans. It can be said to have been a very successful project. However, now we realised that the ecological cost was also great.
One big problem Nasser’s government faced was the population increase. It was rising at about 2.5% per year. In 1960 it was 25 million. By 1980 it was 40 million. At that point Egypt became a net importer of foodstuffs. Moreover, for every feddan of desert reclaimed, one was lost by urban expansion.
Their nationalisation programmes involved taking responsibility for all businesses, meant officers were in charge – and not all were trained to do the job.
Nasser’s egalitarianism:
1961 : the number of feddans allowed per family was reduced to 100.
1969: this was reduced to 50 feddans.
1952 Agrarian Reform Law affected only 12% of cultivated land (and gave land to only 9% of the rural population) there was a significant redistribution of wealth.
By 1964: 55% of cultivated area is small farms (5 feddans or less), and 33% medium farms (5-50 feddans). 12% was 50-100 feddans.
All of this was achieved without major disruptions.
So, unless you are a very rich family who feels grieved that the government have taken so much of your land off you, this was a good thing. All the better for being carried out without all the social disruption (violence, killings) one saw, for example, in China.
After 1961 the maximum individual salary was limited to £E5,000. Any person who earned over £E10,000 was taxed a t90%.
Lower paid workers given pensions health care etc…
1962: Nasser presents all these things as part of the Charter for National Action.
However, by talking of exporting this revolution he alienated himself from Arab monarchs.
Nasser wanted to form an ASU - Arab Socialist Union - to export this revolution to other Arab countries.
It was used to mobilise mass opinion in Egypt. Like single parties everywhere, Nasser’s became cumbersome and came to be resented.
1964 new constitution proclaimed.
It said 50% of delegates to Assembly must be peasants and workers. But Nasser was still in control.
1965: a plebiscite reconfirmed all of this.
Some call his system “soft-hearted authoritarianism”.
It had a secret police, but was not as brutal as Iran.
Egyptians believed he had their interests at heart.
Egalitarianism also with regard to women.
Right to vote; women workers;
Enrolment in education doubled from 1953 to 1970.