Essential Question for TP #10
Should Japan have opened their doors to trade with the United States in 1853? Were they right to stay isolated for the centuries before contact with the American Navy? Evaluate both positions in order to make a decision on what was ultimately “right” for Japan, isolation or connection with the West.
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Ch. 17-3 & 26-4 Guided Reading
Citation: World History: The Human Journey. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 2005.
Tokugawa Ieyasu (423)
Hideyoshi's most powerful vassal, Tokugawa Ieyasu (toh·kuh· GAH·wahee·YAH·soo) succeeded him as overlord. Ieyasu established his capital at Edo (AY·doh), the city that is now Tokyo. Other daimyo resisted Ieyasu, but he defeated them in 1600. In 1603 Ieyasu became shogun.
Tokugawa Ieyasu crushed his defeated rivals. He did allow some 250 to 260 daimyo to keep possession of their private lands. However, Ieyasu's actions clearly demonstrated that he was prepared to expand or reduce the size of their territories in the future. The Tokugawa family would keep the title of shogun for more than 250 years. They established a government known as the Tokugawa shogunate.
Tokugawa rule (424)
The political system established in Japan in 1603 by the Tokugawa shogunate was a cross between feudalism and a central monarchy. Within his domain, each daimyo governed as an almost absolute ruler. Local peasants paid taxes to support the daimyo and those who served him, such as the samurai. The Tokugawa family had its own private domain, which included roughly one fourth of the nation's resources. Thus the Tokugawa did not rule the entire country directly. Nor did they personally tax the entire population. In this way Japan remained politically and economically decentralized to some degree.
Because of their wealth and military power, however, the Tokugawa had considerable influence over the daimyo. Some historians believe that the Tokugawa shoguns prohibited the daimyo from making alliances with one another. Most daimyo had to spend every other year in Edo, the shogun's capital. When they returned to their own domains, the daimyo left their families in Edo as hostages. Maintaining two residences—one in Edo and one in the provinces—proved very expensive for the daimyo. Traveling to and from Edo in a grand procession also drained their financial resources. In addition, living in Edo transformed many daimyo from warriors to courtiers. In this manner the Tokugawa shoguns maintained control over the daimyo.
The Tokugawa shogunate shaped Japanese life in several ways. Its strong central government brought more than two centuries of stability to Japan. Tokugawa control of the daimyo helped to keep peace in the countryside. In addition, the Tokugawa set trade restrictions and limited contact with foreigners. By doing so, they achieved almost complete isolation from Europe by 1650. Their desire for isolation was in response to contact with foreigners that had occurred beginning in the 1500s.
Foreign Contact
Japanese soldiers and sailors had traveled overseas since the 1000s. In the early 1400s, during the Ashikaga shogunate, Japan's ships had sailed to China and Korea seeking trade. At times the Japanese acted as pirates, taking whatever they could from local peoples.
The Portuguese in Japan
In the mid-1500s the daimyo began to trade with the Portuguese, whose ships appeared in Japanese waters. Portuguese traders brought two items new to the Japanese: muskets and Christianity.
Earlier rulers had used troops armed with muskets in his battles against rival daimyo. However, some samurai did not approve of the musket. It violated the traditional samurai fighting ethic, which was based on skill. Anyone armed with a musket could overcome years of samurai training with a single shot.
In the wake of the Portuguese traders came Christian missionaries. Among the missionaries were the Jesuits, who achieved notable success during the Counter-Reformation in Europe. The Jesuits concentrated on converting the daimyo to Christianity. After a daimyo converted to Christianity, the Jesuits would seek converts in the daimyo's domain. It has been estimated that by the early 1600s the missionaries had converted as many as 300,000 Japanese to Christianity.
Closing the country
The Tokugawa shoguns concluded that Christianity was an undesirable threat to their rule. The shoguns saw Christianity as a force that might weaken their authority because it taught loyalty to a power other than the Tokugawa shogun. The shoguns also feared that Christianity would be a divisive belief in their tradition-based society. Early in the 1600s the shoguns acted on their concerns by forcing Portuguese traders and missionaries to leave the country.
The Tokugawa enforced other strict rules in order to keep Japan isolated from foreign influences. They banned most overseas trade. The Japanese people were prohibited from traveling abroad. Like China, Japan concentrated on domestic affairs and tried to ignore the outside world. Because Japan is an island nation, and because its leaders could take active steps to secure its coasts, the country was able to achieve a high degree of isolation.
Life in Tokugawa Japan (425)
The Tokugawa shoguns, like most emperors in neighboring China, did not promote change. The concept of stability was more important to the Japanese. The Confucian ideas, which the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese, supported this ideal.
Social classes
The Tokugawa shoguns adopted—with some changes—the Confucian ideal of social classes. The warrior class in Japan filled roughly the same role as the scholar-gentry in China. Therefore the samurai stood at the top of the Japanese social order. Peasants, artisans, and merchants followed in descending order of importance.
A person's social class was determined by birth. Sons followed the occupations of their fathers. For example, a person born into an artisan family in Osaka remained a member of the artisan class in Osaka for life.
The Tokugawa shoguns encouraged members of the samurai to study the Confucian classics. The shoguns established schools in the various domains to prepare young samurai for their peacetime roles as government officials. The shoguns, however, did not adopt the Chinese civil service examination system. In Japan, samurai became officials by heredity (birth and class) alone. Males born into low-ranking samurai families worked as low-ranking officials in their domain. Those born into high-ranking families served as high-ranking officials.
The shoguns usually required a samurai to live in the castle town of his daimyo. Instead of living on income from country estates, samurai now received salaries. This policy gave the shoguns greater control over the samurai, who could not develop wealth independently. It also eliminated any opportunity for the samurai to revolt against their lords.
Change and culture (426)
As in China, the rulers of Japan could not prevent economic, political, and social change within their country. Much of the change that took place in Japan resembled that which occurred in China. Internal trade expanded. Various regions of the country began to specialize in certain crops and handicrafts. Cities grew in size. Many artisans and merchants became well-off.
These changes did not please everyone. One writer claimed that corruption had taken root in the government and that the common people were not prospering.There were some positive changes in Japanese life, however. As in both Europe and China, urban growth and increased wealth led to the rise of a popular culture. By the early 1700s new forms of art, literature, and theater had taken root. Many of these new forms appealed to the tastes of ordinary city residents.
The End of Japan' Isolation (427)
As part of the Tokugawa plan to keep Japan isolated, the government refused to give shelter to ships from other nations during storms. This policy angered many Westerners. Western nations that sought commercial expansion wanted Japan to follow China's lead and end its isolation.
In 1853 President Millard Fillmore of the United States sent Commodore Matthew Perry and a powerful naval force to Japan. Perry had orders to negotiate a treaty that would guarantee the safety of U.S. sailors and open Japanese ports to American trade. Perry's squadron of heavily armed, steam-powered warships sailed into Tokyo Bay on July 8, 1853. In a show of force and dignity, Perry ceremoniously presented a letter from President Fillmore that urged the Japanese to accept the American treaty. Perry promised to return for an answer the following year.
The American visit sparked controversy within Japan. Some powerful leaders favored military resistance and continued isolation. Others, however, believed that Japan could not hold out against the United States. The shogun, worried about the threat of a naval attack by the Americans, reluctantly agreed to negotiate when Perry returned in 1854.
The negotiations between the shogun and Perry led to the Treaty of Kanagawa (kah·NAH·gah·wah) in 1854. Under the treaty the Japanese opened two ports to let Americans obtain fuel, shelter, and supplies. The opening of the ports permitted trade to begin between the two nations. Within two years, Japan signed similar treaties with Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Russia. As part of the agreements, foreign nations were allowed to establish consulates—diplomatic offices headed by consuls.
In 1858 the governments of Japan and the United States signed a new treaty. The two countries agreed to exchange ministers. In addition, the treaty allowed foreign residence in Edo and Osaka, extraterritorial privileges, and international trade. The Japanese also opened more treaty ports to the United States. Similar agreements between Japan and other nations soon followed.
Japanese opponents of the Tokugawa shogunate criticized the government for signing treaties with foreign powers. To many samurai, the government's inability to resist Western demands cast doubt on its right to rule Japan. Many Japanese began to complain about the weakness of the government abroad and its strict rule at home. In the 1860s civil war broke out in Japan. Supporters of the Tokugawa shogunate battled its opponents. Calling for major reforms, the anti-Tokugawa forces overthrew the shogunate in 1867. They restored the power of the emperor, moving Japan toward a more centralized government. The new emperor, a teenager, named his reign Meiji, meaning "Enlightened Rule."
Japanese Responses to Imperialism (676)
While Britain was firmly in control of India, Japan was taking a different course. Westerners did not rule in Japan. Japan controlled its own government. However, the Japanese had been influenced by Western ideas. In response, Japan changed its form of government and began to industrialize.
The Meiji Restoration
In 1868 a group of samurai overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate. Then they returned the emperor to power. This change is called the Meiji Restoration. The samurai took action because they had grown impatient with Japan's old ways. They wanted a government and social system more like those in the West. They convinced the Meiji government to make broad changes.
One of the most important changes was to do away with the old system of social classes. Now all Japanese were free to choose what kind of work they wanted to do. The government also required that everyone should go to school. With this program, Japan almost wiped out illiteracy.
In 1899 the Japanese put into effect a new constitution that gave the Japanese people a say in their country's government by giving voting rights to some Japanese. However, only those people who owned a large amount of property were allowed to vote. Although the constitution gave the emperor supreme power, he did not use it. The new constitution also created a two-house national assembly called the Diet. One house of the Diet was made up of people who were elected. In the beginning, the elected house had very limited power. A small group of leaders acting in the name of the emperor held the real power in Japan.
Industrialization (677)
Japan modernized very quickly. The government bought new factory machinery from Western countries and passed laws to encourage private citizens to start businesses. Also, in the 1880s the government sent students and leaders to the Western countries. They were to learn as much as they could about Western ideas.
By 1900 Japan had become the first country in Asia to industrialize. Japanese cities were linked together by railroads and telephones. Factories were making goods that could be sold to other countries. The textile industry was particularly strong. Japan exported machine-made cotton cloth and silk. The money the Japanese got from these exports paid for the imports they needed. They bought raw materials such as iron ore and crude oil. Japan used these raw materials to make steel and build ships. The country was much stronger than it had been before the Meiji Restoration.
Ch. 17-3 & 26-4 Guided Reading
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Short Answer
- Name one way in which the Tokugawa shoguns maintained control over the daimyo.
- What two new items were brought to Japan by the Portuguese?
- How were people’s social class determined in Tokugawa Japan
- Name one thing the U.S. wanted from Japan in any treaty that was signed after Commodore Perry arrived. Also name the treaty between the Japanese and the Americans that was signed in 1854.
- What group in Japan started the Meiji Restoration? Who did they return to power?
- Was the policy of isolation good for Japan and the Japanese people? Why or why not? Please give evidence from the reading to prove your point.
Primary Source Readings
Letter of Millard Fillmore, President of the United States of America, to His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of Japan, November 13, 1852. (1)
Great and Good Friend: I send you this public letter by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, an officer of the highest rank in the navy of the United States, and commander of the squadron now visiting your imperial majesty's dominions. I have directed Commodore Perry to assure your imperial majesty that I entertain the kindest feelings towards your majesty's person and government, and that I have no other object in sending him to Japan but to propose to your imperial majesty that the United States and Japan should live in friendship and have commercial intercourse with each other. The Constitution and laws of the United States forbid all interference with the religious or political concerns of other nations. I have particularly charged Commodore Perry to abstain from every act which could possibly disturb the tranquility of your imperial majesty's dominions.
The United States of America reach from ocean to ocean, and our Territory of Oregon and State of California lie directly opposite to the dominions of your imperial majesty. Our steamships can go from California to Japan in eighteen days.
Our great State of California produces about sixty millions of dollars in gold every year, besides silver, quicksilver, precious stones, and many other valuable articles. Japan is also a rich and fertile country, and produces many very valuable articles. Your imperial majesty's subjects are skilled in many of the arts. I am desirous that our two countries should trade with each other, for the benefit both of Japan and the United States.
We know that the ancient laws of your imperial majesty's government do not allow of foreign trade, except with the Chinese and the Dutch; but as the state of the world changes and new governments are formed, it seems to be wise, from time to time, to make new laws. There was a time when the ancient laws of your imperial majesty's government were first made.
About the same time America, which is sometimes called the New World, was first discovered and settled by the Europeans. For a long time there were but a few people, and they were poor. They have now become quite numerous; their commerce is very extensive; and they think that if your imperial majesty were so far to change the ancient laws as to allow a free trade between the two countries it would be extremely beneficial to both. If your imperial majesty is not satisfied that it would be safe altogether to abrogate the ancient laws which forbid foreign trade, they might be suspended for five or ten years, so as to try the experiment. If it does not prove as beneficial as was hoped, the ancient laws can be restored. The United States often limit their treaties with foreign states to a few years, and then renew them or not, as they please.
I have directed Commodore Perry to mention another thing to your imperial majesty. Many of our ships pass every year from California to China; and great numbers of our people pursue the whale fishery near the shores of Japan. It sometimes happens, in stormy weather, that one of our ships is wrecked on your imperial majesty's shores. In all such cases we ask, and expect, that our unfortunate people should be treated with kindness, and that their property should be protected, till we can send a vessel and bring them away. We are very much in earnest in this.
Commodore Perry is also directed by me to represent to your imperial majesty that we understand there is a great abundance of coal and provisions in the Empire of Japan. Our steamships, in crossing the great ocean, burn a great deal of coal, and it is not convenient to bring it all the way from America. We wish that our steamships and other vessels should be allowed to stop in Japan and supply themselves with coal, provisions, and water. They will pay for them in money, or anything else your imperial majesty's subjects may prefer; and we request your imperial majesty to appoint a convenient port, in the southern part of the empire, where our vessels may stop for this purpose. We are very desirous of this.
These are the only objects for which I have sent Commodore Perry, with a powerful squadron, to pay a visit to your imperial majesty's renowned city of Edo: friendship, commerce, a supply of coal and provisions, and protection for our shipwrecked people.
We have directed Commodore Perry to beg your imperial majesty's acceptance of a few presents. They are of no great value in themselves; but some of them may serve as specimens of the articles manufactured in the United States, and they are intended as tokens of our sincere and respectful friendship.
May the Almighty have your imperial majesty in His great and holy keeping!
In witness whereof, I have caused the great seal of the United States to be hereunto affixed, and have subscribed the same with my name, at the city of Washington, in America, the seat of my government, on the thirteenth day of the month of November, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-two.
Your good friend,