Academic Writing

ACADEMIC WRITING

UNIT #2

CLAUSES

THE SENTENCE

IN THIS UNIT: Clauses

Types of Clauses: Independent and Dependent

Kinds of Sentences:

(1) simple

(2) compound

(3) complex

(4)  compound-complex

Sentences Types and Writing Style

CLAUSES: AN INTRODUCTION

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. To understand how sentences work in English, it is important to have a solid understanding of what a clause is. A clause is simply a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. A clause may contain other elements, but every clause needs at least a subject and a verb.

Clauses:

football is fun (Here, there is a subject, football, and a verb, is; therefore, it is a clause)

because dogs like bones (The subject is dogs; the verb is like. This is a clause)

Not clauses:

John, in his green suit (Here, there is a subject, John, but no verb. Therefore, it is not a clause)

protect the ocean (Here, there is a verb, protect, but no subject. Therefore, it is not a clause)

EXERCISE 2A: Clauses

Decide if each of the following is a clause or not. Circle the correct answer.

1. the car stopped CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

2. the blue suit hanging in the closet CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

3. an interesting life CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

4. the short man sat CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

5. wasn’t very interesting CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

6. she told him everything CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

7. since it wasn’t very late CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

8. love is like a rose CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

9. the morning newspaper CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

10. the child played CLAUSE NOT A CLAUSE

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES

There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.

Independent Clauses

An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself. An independent clause is formed with a subject and a verb and often a complement.

Two examples:

Subject Verb (Complement)

The sun rose.

Water evaporates rapidly in warm climates.

Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that, or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought, so it is not a sentence by itself. A dependent clause is also called a sentence fragment. By itself, it is an incomplete sentence, and it is an error. A dependent clause is formed with a subordinator, a subject and a verb.

Some examples:

Subordinator Subject Verb (Complement)

... when the boy ran ...

... because he is a good singer …

… until I saw the doctor …

… so that the man understood …

Some common subordinators include:

after before that when which

although even though though whenever while

as how unless where who

as if if until wherever whose

because so that

* a “complement” is a word, phrase, or clause that follows a verb and which simply adds further information concerning, usually, the verb's subject.

EXERCISE 2B: Independent and Dependent Clauses

Write Independent next to the complete sentences and put a period (.) after them. Write Dependent next to the incomplete sentences. The first two have been done for you.

______1. Globalization means more travel for businessmen and women

______2. As business executives fly around the globe to sell their companies’ products and services

______3. Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers

______4. Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times

______5. During long journeys through several time zones, the body’s inner clock is disrupted

______6. For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lag than travel from east to west

______7. Also, changes in work schedules can cause jet lag

______8. When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night shift, for example

______9. Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag

______10. There are some ways to minimize it

______11. Because jet lag is caused at least partially by loss of sleep, not just a change in the time of sleep

______12. A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination as late as possible

______13. Upon arriving, he or she should immediately go to bed

______14. Then the traveler should start to live in the new time zone immediately

______15. Even when the traveler arrives early in the morning and cannot go to bed immediately

EXERCISE 2C: Independent and Dependent Clauses

Decide if each of the following is an independent or dependent clause. Circle the correct answer.

1. Joe worried about his test INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

2. before he returns to work INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

3. after they completed the homework INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

4. she doesn’t come to see him anymore INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

5. who wore a red dress INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

6. until Mr. Sanchez has his first cup of coffee INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

7. which is why we believe in the project INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

8. until someone does something INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

9. she found it in the trash INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

10. that ran in front of the truck INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

11. after Amy sneezed all over the tuna salad INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

12. because the one I have now isn't working INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

13. I ate the chicken INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

14. wherever you go INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

15. time waits for no man INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

KINDS OF SENTENCES

Sentences are formed by one or more clauses and express a complete thought. The four basic kinds of sentences in English are:

(1) simple

(2) compound

(3) complex

(4) compound-complex

(1) Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is the same as an independent clause.

Subject Verb (Complement)

The boy ran.

He is a good singer.

A simple sentence can have one or more subjects. (When there is more than one subject, the subjects are called a compound subject.) A simple sentence can also have one or more verbs. (When there is more than one verb, the verbs are called a compound verb.)

Examples:

one subject, one verb Sally likes salad

one subject, compound verb Sally likes salad and eats it every day.

compound subject, one verb Sally and Roy like salad.

compound subject, compound verb Sally and Roy like salad and eat it every day.

(2) Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are several ways to make a compound sentence, including using (a) coordinators,

(b) semicolons, and (c) semicolons with conjunctive adverbs.

(a) Coordinators

One way to join two independent clauses together is with a coordinator (also called coordinating conjunctions). There are seven coordinators in English: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. You can remember these coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS (using the first letter of each of the coordinators). Coordinators are used in the following ways:

CONJUNCTION

/ FUNCTION / EXAMPLE

FOR

/

Meaning “because”

/ Japanese people live longer than most nationalities, for they eat healthy diets.
AND /

To join two similar ideas

/ They eat a lot of fish and vegetables, and they eat lightly.
NOR / To join two negative independent clauses / They do not eat a lot of red meat, nor do they eat many dairy products. (note: notice that question word order is used after NOR.)
BUT / To join two contrasting ideas / Diet is one factor in how long people live, but it is not the only factor.
OR / To add an alternative possibility / People should limit the amount of animal fat in their diet, or they risk getting heart disease.
YET / To add an unexpected or surprising continuation / Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity, yet Japanese have a high rate of tobacco use.
SO / Shows that the second idea is the logical consequence of the first / Doctors say that stress is another factor, so try to avoid stress if you wish to live a long time.

Note that a comma is used after each coordinator.

EXERCISE 2F: More Coordinators

Write the correct coordinator in each blank space.

1. Alberto was cold, ______he put on a coat.

2. Maria tried to read a novel in French, ______it was too difficult.

3. I’m not going to Vancouver this year, ______am I going to San Francisco.

4. To get from Vancouver to Victoria, you can fly, ______you can ride the ferry.

5. I bought a bottle of wine, ______we drank it together.

6. Tom felt terrible, ______he had been out drinking all night.

7. The waiter was not very nice, ______the food was delicious.

8. I went to buy a Rolling Stones CD, ______the shop didn't have it.

9. Anna needed some money, ______she took a part-time job.

10. He was the tallest player on the team, ______he was a terrible basketball player.

11. There's so much rain lately! Maybe it's because of global warming, ______maybe it's just coincidence.

12. Julie has a guitar, ______she plays it really well.

13. Bob can’t play the guitar, ______can he play the drums.

14. The concert was cancelled, ______we went to a nightclub instead.

15. He said he didn’t want to go, ______he went anyway.

(b) Semicolons

Another way to create compound sentences is with semicolons. This kind of compound sentence is possible only when the two independent clauses are closely related in meaning. If they are not closely related, they should be written as two simple sentences, each ending with a period.

The car has a large engine; this power is used to accelerate quickly.

We are unable to meet as planned; we will meet next week.

EXERCISE 2H: Semicolons

Place a semicolon in the correct place, below.

1. The practice of yoga strengthens the body and promotes flexibility it also strengthens the mind and refreshes the spirit.

2. Motherhood causes some women to quit their jobs others continue working despite having young children to care for.

3. Three hundred guests attended his wedding two attended his funeral.

(c) Conjunctive Adverbs

Another way to join two independent clauses and show the logical connection between them is by using conjunctive adverbs. These provide some of the same logic as the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions seen above, but generally are more formal.

Here is a list of some of the most common conjunctive adverbs (followed by coordinating and subordinating conjunctions that have similar meanings):

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB / COORDINATOR / SUBORDINATOR
accordingly
afterward / after
also / and
as a result / for / since, because
besides / and
consequently / so
earlier / before
for example
hence / so / since, because
however / but, yet / although, even though
in addition / and
later / after
moreover / and
nevertheless / yet / even though, though, although
otherwise / or
still / yet
then / after
therefore / so
thus / so

Here are some examples of how conjunctive adverbs are used:

To add a similar, equal idea

also
besides
furthermore
in addition
moreover / Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations; also / besides / furthermore / in addition / moreover, they prepare students to transfer to a four-year college or university.

To add an unexpected or surprising continuation

however
nevertheless
nonetheless
still / The cost of attending a community college is low; however / nevertheless / nonetheless / still, many students need financial aid.

To add a complete contrast

on the other hand
in contrast / Tuition at a community college is low; on the other hand / in contrast, tuition at a private school is high.

To give an alternative possibility

otherwise / Students must take final exams; otherwise, they won’t pass.

To add an expected result

accordingly
as a result
consequently
hence
therefore
thus / Native and non-native English speakers have different needs; accordingly / as a result / consequently / hence / therefore / thus, most schools provide separate English classes for each group.

To add an example

for example
for instance / Most colleges now have a writing requirement for graduation; for example / for instance, students at my college must pass a writing test before they can register for their final semester.

The rule for using conjunctive adverbs is simple: when a conjunctive adverb joins two independent clauses, place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it:

Independent clause; / accordingly, / independent clause.
also,
as a result,
for example,
still,
therefore,
etc.

Here are two examples:

Independent clause; / conjunctive adverb, / independent clause.
Fifteen men quickly cleared the accident from the road; / consequently, / the highways was open within an hour.
Dogs make good pets; / however, / elephants do not.

EXERCISE 2J: Conjunctive Adverbs

Combine the following pairs of sentences using conjunctive adverbs (note, many of these could be joined with coordinators: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.)

1. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost of installation is very high.

2. Burning fossil fuels causes serious damage to the planet. We need to develop other sources of energy.

3. Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. People continue to do it.

4. All nations of the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren will suffer the consequences.

EXERCISE 2K: Compound Sentence Practice

Finish these compound sentences using conjunctive adverbs.

1. Fire destroyed the building; however,

2. She realized her cat was missing; therefore,

3. Jerry handed the clerk 20 dollars; then,

4. The man arrested for murder was found guilty; consequently,

5. She did not yell; nevertheless,

6. It is an old house;

7. He generally leaves home at 8:00;

8. First he kissed her;

9. Bill didn’t call his wife;

10. She didn’t love him anymore;

EXERCISE 2M: Compound Sentence Practice

Use what you have learned about forming compound sentences to improve the following essay, which contains many short, simple sentences. Combine sentences wherever appropriate. Try to use each of the three methods at least once. There are many possible ways to combine the sentences.