Racial Identity and Discrimination-Distress - 1

Racial Identity and Discrimination-Distress - 1

On-Line Supplemental Materials

References (Studies Included in Meta-Analysis)

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Beatty, D. L. (2008). The dynamic role of racial-ethnic identity in the link between interpersonal racism and ambulatory blood pressure among United States Blacks. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The City of New York.

Berkel, C., Murry, V. M., Hurt, T. R., Chen, Y.-f., Brody, G. H., Simons, R. L., et al. (2009). It

takes a village: Protecting rural African American youth in the context of racism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 175-188.

Bynum, M. S., Burton, E. T., & Best, C. (2007). Racism experiences and psychological

functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 64-71.

Curtis, C. W. (2008). Race matters: Racial identity and protection against the negative

influences of racism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Virginia.

DuBois, D. L., Burk-Braxton, C., Swenson, L. P., Tevendale, H. D., & Hardesty, J. L. (2002).

Race and gender influences on adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of an integrative model. Child Development, 73, 1573-1592.

Franklin, D. C. (2002). Racism related stress, racial identity and psychological health for Blacks in America. Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis, ProQuest Information & Learning, US.

Johnson, S. C., & Arbona, C. (2006). The Relation of Ethnic Identity, Racial Identity, and

Race-Related Stress Among African American College Students. Journal of College Student Development, 47, 495-507.

Jones, H. L. (2005). Experiencing, appraising and coping with race-related stress: Black

women living in New York City. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The City University of New York.

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attitudes, and mental health among Black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 208-231.

Miller, D. B., & MacIntosh, R. (1999). Promoting resilience in urban African American

adolescents: Racial socialization and identity as protective factors. Social Work Research, 23, 159-169.

Miller, J. L. (2000). Understanding achievement attribution and achievement motivation among African American youth: Racism, racial socialization, & Spirituality. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. California School of Professional Psychology, CA.

Neblett, E. W., Jr., White, R. L., Ford, K. R., Philip, C. L., Nguyén, H. X., & Sellers, R. M.

(2008). Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: Can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18, 477-515.

Pieterse, A. L. & Carter, R. T. (2010). The role of racial identity in perceived racism and

psychological stress among Black American Adults: Exploring traditional and alternative approaches. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 40, 1028-1053.

Ragsdale, B. L. (2000). African American identity, experience with racism, and meaning in life among black college students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Rhode Island.

Raymond-Embry, G. (2003). From men to boys: The relationship between African American

fathers’ racism-related experiences, attitudes, coping styles and the racial socialization of sons. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University, CA.

Resnicow, K., & Ross-Gaddy, D. (1997). Development of a racial identity scale for

low-income African Americans. Journal of Black Studies, 28, 239-254.

Richman, L. S., Bennett, G. G., Pek, J., Siegler, I., & Williams, R. B., Jr. (2007).

Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress. Health Psychology, 26, 675-683.

Rivas-Drake, D., Hughes, D., & Way, N. (2008). A Closer Look at Peer Discrimination, Ethnic

Identity, and Psychological Well-Being among Urban Chinese American Sixth Graders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 12-21.

Rollins, V. B. (2001). Perceived racism and career self-efficacy in African American

adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Denver.

Rollins, V. B., & Valdez, J. N. (2006). Perceived Racism and Career Self-Efficacy in African

American Adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 176-198.

Rowles, J. R. (2008). Psychological resilience related to perceived racism among African

American adults. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Missouri – Kansas City.

Scott, L. D. (2003). Cultural orientation and coping with perceived discrimination among

African American youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 235-256.

Scott, L. D. (2004). Correlates of coping with perceived discriminatory experiences among

African American adolescents. Journal of adolescence, 27, 123-137.

Scott, L. D., & House, L. E. (2005). Relationship of distress and perceived control to

coping with perceived racial discrimination among black youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 31, 254-272.

Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination, Perceived Stress, and Psychological Distress among African American Young Adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 302-317.

Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092.

Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. H. (2006). Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187-216.

Utsey, S. O., Chae, M. H., Brown, C. F., & Kelly, D. (2002). Effect of ethnic group membership on ethnic identity, race-related stress and quality of life. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 366-377.

Watts, R. J., & Carter, R. T. (1991). Psychological aspects of racism in organizations.

Group & Organization Management, 16, 328-344.

Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., Wei, M., & McLain, R. (2006). African American men, Gender

role conflict, and psychological distress: The role of racial identity. Journal of Counseling & Development, 84, 419-429.

Appendix A

Resolving Initial Inter-rater Disagreements for Racial/ Ethnic Identity and Socialization Variables

Although the first and second authors agreed on all of the final subcategories reflecting racial identity and racial socialization, there were three instances in which we noticed systematic disagreement with respect to categorization, or placement of variables into these subcategories, that led to decreased inter-rater reliability. Each of these disagreements pertained to the placement of racial identity variables. There were 95 variables which we coded; we disagreed on 6, resulting in an initial inter-rater agreement rate of 94%. We then discussed and resolved all disagreements, using the literature to guide the process. After we resolved these discrepancies, inter-rater agreement was 100%.

First, there was initial disagreement as to whether variables measured by the Internalization- Afrocentricity subscale of the CRIS should fall within the Internalization or Afrocentricity subcategory (accounting for 2 disagreements). While the second author coded this variable in Internalization, the first another coded this variable in racial pride/ Afrocentricity. Upon second look at the items, we both believed that the racial pride/ Afrocentricity subcategory would be a better fit for this variable as the items reflect pride in and affiliation with Black Americans, and did not contain components such as Multiculturalist attitudes that were also captured in the Internalization subcategory.

Second, we disagreed as to which subcategory variables measured by the Humanist subscale of the MIBI should be placed (accounting for 3 disagreements). Whereas the first author placed this variable under the Pr-encounter/ Assimilation subcategory, the second author placed this subcategory under Internalization. The Humanist subscale consists of items assessing the extent to which individuals believe that an emphasis should be placed on being human over and above one’s identification with a particular race. Upon re-examination of the literature, the Humanist subscale seemed to most closely align with the variables placed under the Pre-encounter/ Assimilation subcategory, as this subcategory contains variables related the extent to which individuals de-emphasize the importance of race, hold color-blind attitudes, and believe in White dominant ideologies, such as the belief in meritocracy at the expense of seeing the importance of race (Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Helms, 1993). Further, Sellers reported relatively high correlations among the Humanist and Assimilation subscales (Sellers & Shelton, 2003), supporting the similarities among these constructs. Thus, we agreed that variables measured by the Humanist subscale are better captured under the Pre-encounter/ Assimilation subcategory.

Lastly, one disagreement occurred because the first author placed “Black cultural immersion” from Ashburn-Nardo et al.’s (2007) study in the racial pride/ Afrocentricity subcategory, whereas the second author placed this same variable under the racial socialization subcategory. This variable was comprised of three questions and assessed, as participants were growing up, the percentage of their parents’ friends that were Black, percentage of their friends that were Black, and percentage of their close friends that were Black. Upon reconsideration, both authors agreed that this variable was better placed under the racial pride/ Afrocentricity subcategory since the questions targeted respondents’ affiliation with Black Americans rather than specific messages that were passed down to respondents as they were raised (which would align more closely with the racial socialization subcategory). After resolving these 6 disagreements, inter-rater agreement was 100%.

Table 1.

Study Characteristics

Last name of First Author / Study Characteristics / Sample Characteristics
Year / Type / Funding / Setting / Region / Gender / Mean Age / N
Ashburn-Nardo / 2007 / P / NIMH / Univ. / MW / Mixed (F: 72%) / UG / 316
Beatty / 2008 / U / No / General / NE / Mixed (F: 57%) / 40.81 / 214
Berkel / 2009 / P / No / Com / SE / Mixed (F: NI) / 13 / 373
Bynunm / 2007 / P / Univ. / Univ. / SE / Mixed (F: 57%) / 18.3 / 247
Curtis / 2003 / U / No / School / SE / Mixed (F: 57%) / HS / 56
DuBois / 2002 / P / No / School / MW / Mixed (F: 51%) / ~ HS / 350
Franklin / 2002 / U / No / General / NE / Mixed (F: 51%) / 37.68 / 255
Johnson / 2006 / P / No / Univ. / SW / Mixed (F: 70%) / 24 / 140
Jones / 2005 / U / No / Univ. / NE / Female / 22 / 268
2007 / P
Miller / 1999 / P / No / Health / NI / Mixed (F: 63%) / 15.9 / 131
Miller / 2000 / U / No / School / SW / Female / 15.5 / 49
Neblett / 2008 / P / NIMH; NSF / School / MW / Mixed (F: 60%) / 13.75 / 361
Piertse / 2010 / P / No / General / NE / Mixed (F: 35%) / 30.1 / 340
Ragsdale / 2000 / U / No / Univ. / NE / Mixed (F: 54%) / 21 / 48
Raymond-Embry / 2003 / U / No / General / SW / Male / 26-59 / 102
Resnicow / 1997 / P / Center / Com. / NE / Female / NI / 261
Richman / 2007 / P / NIMH / General / MW / Mixed (F: 45%) / 33.89 / 586
Rivas-Drake / 2008 / P / No / Sch. / NE / Mixed (F; 48%) / 11.32 / 119
Rollins
Rollins, Valdez / 2001
2006 / U
P / No / Sch. / NE / Mixed (F: 55%) / 16.5 / 85
Rowles / 2008 / U / No / General / Mixed / Mixed (F: 35%) / 18-66+ / 201
Scott
Scott, House / 2003
2004
2005 / P
P
P / No / Sch. / Mixed / Mixed (F: 62%) / 15.6 / 71
Sellers, Caldwell / 2003 / P / NIMH / Univ. / MW; SE / Mixed (F: 25%) / Univ. / 267
Sellers, Shelton / 2003 / P / NIDA / Sch. / MW / Mixed (F: 54%) / 17.8 / 555
Sellers / 2006 / P / NIMH; NSF / Sch. / MW / Mixed (F: 61%) / 12.8 / 314
Utsey / 2002 / P / No / General / NE / Mixed (F: 70%) / 17-72 / 70
Watss / 1991 / P / No / General / NI / Mixed (F: 64%) / 44 / 142
Wester / 2006 / P / No / Univ. / MW / Male / 26.4 / 130

Note. Type: Publication Type (P: Published; U: Unpublished); Funding: Univ.: University; NIMH: National Institute of Mental Health; NSF: National Science Foundation; NIDA: National Institute on Drug Abuse; Setting; Univ.: University; Sch.: School; Com: Community; Region: NE: Northeast; MW: Midwest; SE: Southeast; SW: Southwest; W: West; Mixed: Multiple regions; NI: Not informed.

Racial Identity and Discrimination - Distress- 1

Table 2

Measures of Racial Discrimination, Racial/ Ethnic Identity and Socialization, and Psychological Distress

First Author (year) / Racial Discrimination / Racial/ Ethnic Identity and Socialization / Psychological distress / Link
Measure / α / Construct/ (Sub)scales / α / Cat / Measure / Measure / α / (a) / (b) / (C)
Ashburn-Nardo (2007) / Johnson-Lecci scale; Race-based rejection sensitivity questionnaires; Researcher-made items / .78-.95 / Racial centrality / .78 / 4 / MIBI / Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI); Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (R) / .82 / .08 / .31 / -.18
Cultural immersion
Public regard / NI
.79 / 4
6 / Researcher-made
MIBI / .16
-.40 / -.03
-.16
Beatty
(2008) / Perceived ethnic discrimination / .91-.95 / Racial/ Ethnic identity / .81 / 8 / MEIM / -.04
Berkel (2009) / Youth racial discrimination / .87 / Racial socialization (Ave. of black pride & preparation for bias) / .89-.90 / 7 / Racial Socialization
Subscales / .12
Bynum (2007) / Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES) / .70 / Racial socialization (Ave. of cultural pride & cultural coping with antagonism) / .79-.89 / 7 / TERS / Perceived Stress Scale (PSS); Brief symptom Inventory (BSI) / .80-.90 / .24 / .15 / .07
Curtis (2008) / Everyday Discrimination Scale / .92 / Ave. of racial centrality &
private regard / .63-.85 / 4 / MIBI - Teens / Multidimensional Anxiety Scale / .82 / .33 / .02
-.25 / -.01
-.01
Public regard / 6 / MIBI
DuBois (2002) / Race Daily Hassles / .86 / Racial identity / .86-.89 / 8 / MEIM / Internalizing subscale of Youth Self-Report / NI / .30 / .10 / -.03
Franklin (2002) / Individual, Cultural, and Institutional racism by Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS) / .64-.74 / Pre-encounter / .61 / 1 / RIAS-B (long) / Psychological distress and Well-being (R) by Mental Health Index (MHI) / .92-.96 / .07 / -.03 / .19
Encounter / .47 / 2 / RIAS-B (long) / .21 / .14
Immersion/emersion / .75 / 3 / RIAS-B (long) / .29 / .03
Internalization / .50 / 5 / RIAS-B (long) / .11 / -.26
Johnson (2006) / IRRS / .69-.78 / Preencounter
Encounter
Immersion-Emersion
Internalization
Ethnic identity / .62
.45
.65
.74
.88 / 1
2
3
5
8 / RIAS-B
RIAS-B
RIAS-B
RIAS-B
MEIM / .06
.30
.28
.33
.08
Jones 2005; 2007 / SRE / .92 / Preencounter (Ave. of assimilation, mis-education, racial self-hatred)
Immersion (anti-white)
Afrocentricity
Multiculturalist / .76-.89
.76-.89
.76-.89
.76-.89 / 1
3
4
5 / CRIS
CRIS
CRIS
CRIS / Center for Epidemiologic studies Depression (CES-D) / .82 / .35 / .01
.38
.32
.02 / .12
.07
.12
-.02
Miller, D. (1999) / Perceived racial discrimination / NI / Racial identity
Collective self-esteem
Racelessness Scale
Racial socialization / .71
.85
NI
NI / 8
4
1
7 / MEIM
CSE (Other)
RS (Other)
RSAS (Stevenson, 1994) / PSS / .82 / -.05 / .22
.06
-.01
.22 / .01
.03
.21
.13
Miller, J. (2000) / RaLES / .90-.91 / Racial socialization (Ave. of racism struggles socialization, cultural survival socialization, Pride development socialization) / .75-.85 / 7 / TERS / .21
Neblett (2008) / RaLES / .92-.93 / Racial socialization (Ave. of racial pride, racial barriers, egalitarian, self-worth, negative, socialization behaviors) / .64-.77 / 7 / Racial Socialization Questionnaire- teen / Depression; Perceived stress; Well-being (R) / .63-.87 / .28 / .13 / -.05
Piertse (2010) / SRE / .86 / Preencounter / .78 / 1 / RIAS-B (long) / PSS; Psychological well-being (R) by MHI; Psychological distress by MHI / .79-.93 / .36 / .19 / .23
Encounter / .46 / 2 / RIAS-B (long) / .23 / .14
Immersion/emersion / .72 / 3 / RIAS-B (long) / .24 / .07
Internalization / .71 / 5 / RIAS-B (long) / -.04 / -.21
Ragsdale (2000): Female / SRE / .91-.93 / Ave. of humanist, assimilation
Ave. of centrality, private regard, Nationalist
African American Acculturation
Minority / .67-.77
.67-.77
.63-.85
.67-.77 / 1
4
3
4
5 / MIBI
MIBI
MIBI
AAAS (Other)
MIBI / -.13
.06
.31
.51
.20
Ragsdale (2000): Male / SRE / .91-.93 / Ave. of humanist, assimilation
Ave. of centrality, private regard, Nationalist
African American Acculturation
Minority / .67-.77
.67-.77
63-.85
67-.77 / 1
4
3
4
5 / MIBI
MIBI
MIBI
AAAS (Other)
MIBI / -.45
-.02
.19
.24
.10
Raymond-Embry / Racism and Life Experiences Scales / .87-.92 / Ave. of mainstream acceptance & assimilation,
outgroup orientation
Compartmentalization/vigilance
Intragroup affiliation
Racial socialization / .55-.69
.76
.89
.83-.90 / 1
3
4
7 / Racism-Related Coping Scale (Other)
Racism-related coping scale (Other)
Racism-related coping scale
(Other)
PERS / -.26
.20
.38
.27
Resnicow (1997) / Past experience with racism / NI / Recognition of racism (R) / NI / 6 / Researcher-made / -.18
.00
.22
Integrationism (multiculturalism) / NI / 5 / Researcher-made
Ave of Afrocentric attitudes & Afrocentric involvement / NI / 4 / Researcher-made
Richman (2007) / Experiences of discrimination / .93 / Ave. of private Regard& centrality / NI / 4 / Researcher made / Psychological distress / .74 / .00 / -.04 / .02
Rivas-Drake (2008) / Peer ethnic discrimination / .95 / Private Regard
Public regard / .82
.80 / 4
6 / MIBI - T
MIBI - T / Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) / .82 / .19 / -.17
-.17 / -.35
-.03
Rollins (2001; 2006) / RaLES / .87 / Ethnic identity / .73 / 8 / MEIM / .15
Rowles (2008) / SRE / .97 / Ethnic pride / .88 / 8 / Ethnicity Questionnaire (Other) / -.06
Racial socialization / .92 / 7 / PERS / .26
Scott (2000; 2003; 2004; 2005) / Daily Life Experience (DLE) / .77 / Racial centrality / .73 / 4 / MIBI / Internalizing and externalizing problems / .70 / .26 / -.01 / -.13
Racial socialization / .70-.77 / 7 / Racism Related Socialization Influences Scale / -.21
Sellers, Shelton (2003) / DLE / .90 / Ave of racial centrality, private regard
Nationalist
Public regard
Minority
Ave. of assimilation & humanist / .75
.73
.77
.61-.68 / 4
3
6
5
1 / MIBI
MIBI
MIBI
MIBI
MIBI / Psychological distress / .86 / .16 / .18
.30
-.15
.13
-.06 / -.17
-.27
-.14
.05
-.05
Sellers, Caldwell (2003) / DLE / NI / Centrality / .66 / 4 / MIBI / Perceived stress and distress / .86-.88 / .29 / .04 / -.14
Public regard / .63 / 6 / MIBI / -.20 / -.13
Sellers (2006) / DLE / .94 / Ave. of racial centrality and private Regard
Public regard / .63 / 4 / MIBI
MIBI / Ave. well-being (R) perceived stress, and depression / .85-.89 / .20 / .05
-.27 / -.15
-.03
6
Utsey (2002) / IRRS / .94 / Ethnic identity / .87 / 8 / MEIM / Psychological distress / .68 / .45 / -.08 / -.33
Watts (1991) / Personal discrimination / .84 / Preencounter
Immersion-emersion
Internalization / .64
.51
.52 / 1
3
5 / RIAS-B
RIAS-B
RIAS-B / .13
.25
.07
Wester (2006) / Pre-encounter (Ave. of Assimiliation, mis-education, self-hatred)
Afrocentricity
Immersion/ Anti-white
Multiculturalist inclusive / .78-.83 / 1
4
3
5 / CRIS
CRIS
CRIS
CRIS / BSI / .72-.78 / .19
.20
.21
-.08

Note. Cat: Category of group identification – 1: Pre-encouter; 2: Encounter; 3: Immersion-Emersions; 4: Afrocentricity/ Racial Centrality/ Private Regard; 5: Internalization; 6: Public regard; 7: Racial socialization; 8: MEIM, Measure: MEIM: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, RIAS-B: Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale, CRIS: Cross Racial Identity Scale, TERS: Teenager Experience with Racial Socialization Scale, PERS: Parent Experience with Racial Socialization; RSAS: Racial Socialization of Adolescent Scale; AAAS: African American Acculturation Scale.

Racial Identity and Discrimination - Distress- 1

Table 3

Relationships among Racial Discrimination, Racial/Ethnic Identity and Socialization, and Psychological Distress

95% CI
Source / k / / SE / z / Lower / Upper / Qwithin / I2
Link(a): Relationship between racism and psychological distress
Overall / 16 / .21** / .01 / 14.11 / .18 / .24 / 83.80** / 82.10
Link(b): Relationship between racism and racial/ethnic identity and socialization
Type of group identification, Q(7) = 239.07, p < .01 / 192.92** / 84.72
Preencounter/ Assimilation, Q(3) = 5.35, p = .15 / 10 / .02 / .05 / 0.41 / -.05 / .09 / 14.42** / 67.63
MIBI / 3 / -.15 / .11 / -1.36 / -.35 / .07 / 3.23 / 38.15
CRIS / 1 / .01 / .06 / .16 / -.11 / .13 / - / -
RIAS-B / 4 / .09 / .06 / 1.60 / -.02 / .20 / 7.53 / 60.14
Other / 2 / -.13 / .13 / -1.04 / -.37 / .12 / 3.66 / 72.69
Encounter – RIAS-B / 3 / .24** / .04 / 6.50 / .17 / .30 / 0.04 / 0.00
Immersion/ Emersion, Q(2) = 4.61, p= .20 / 9 / .29** / .02 / 11.65 / .24 / .33 / 0.81 / 0.00
MIBI / 3 / .31** / .06 / 5.64 / .21 / .41 / .34 / 0.00
CRIS / 1 / .38** / .06 / 6.51 / .27 / .48 / - / -
RIAS-B / 4 / .26** / .03 / 7.88 / .20 / .32 / 0.47 / 0.00
Other / 1 / .20* / .10 / 2.02 / .01 / .38 / - / -
Racial pride/ Afrocentricity, Q(3) = 18.13**, p < .01 / 17 / .20** / .04 / 5.56 / .13 / .27 / 57.47** / 78.84
MIBI / 9 / .10 / .06 / 1.84 / -.01 / .22 / 32.65** / 75.49
CRIS / 1 / .33** / .06 / 5.40 / .21 / .45 / - / -
Researcher-made / 3 / .11 / .09 / 1.29 / -.06 / .28 / 15.75** / 87.30
Other / 4 / .29* / .12 / 2.40 / .05 / .53 / 9.08* / 66.95
Internalization, Q(3) = 3.14, p = .37 / 9 / .05* / .03 / 2.35 / .02 / .24 / 3.84 / 0.00
MIBI / 3 / .13* / .06 / 2.12 / .01 / .25 / - / -
CRIS / 1 / .02 / .06 / 0.33 / -.10 / .14 / - / -
RIAS-B / 4 / .04 / .04 / 1.12 / -0.03 / .12 / 3.70 / 19
Researcher-made / 1 / 0 / 0 / 0 / -0.12 / 0.12 / - / -
Public regard, Q(1) = 41.66**, p < .01 / 7 / -.24** / .04 / -6.15 / -.29 / -.15 / 15.25** / 60.65
MIBI / 6 / -.25** / .04 / -5.49 / -.33 / -.16 / 14.19** / 64.76
Researcher-made / 1 / -.18** / .06 / 2.92 / -.29 / -.06 / - / -
Racial socialization, Q(1) = 3.42**, p <.01 / 8 / .17** / .03 / 6.50 / .12 / .21 / 5.16 / 18.52
TERS / 4 / .22** / .04 / 5.50 / .15 / .30 / 2.67 / 57.91
Other / 4 / .13** / .03 / 3.93 / .06 / .19 / 2.49 / 0.00
Ethnic Identity / 7 / .04 / .03 / 1.52 / -.01 / .10 / 12.41 / 51.64
Link(c): Relationship between racial/ ethnic identity and soc. and psychological distress
Type of group identification, Q(7) = 94.89, p < .01 / 104.09** / 79.40
Preencounte/ Assimilation, Q(3) = 13.63, p < .01 / 6 / .14** / .03 / 3.14 / .09 / .13 / .69 / 65.10
MIBI / 1 / -.05 / .06 / -.81 / -.17 / .07 / - / -
CRIS / 2 / .14** / .05 / 2.85 / .04 / .24 / .44 / -
RIAS-B / 2 / .21** / .04 / 5.25 / .13 / .29 / .25 / -
Other / 1 / .21** / .08 / 2.41 / .04 / .37 / 0.00 / 0.00
Encounter RIAS-B / 2 / .14** / .04 / 3.42 / .06 / .22 / 0.00 / 0.00
Immersion/ Emersion, Q(2) = 2.05, p =.36 / 5 / .09* / .03 / 2.98 / .03 / .15 / 1.99 / 0.00
MIBI / 1 / .15** / .06 / 2.46 / .03 / .27 / - / -
CRIS / 2 / .13 / .07 / 1.82 / -.01 / .26 / 1.76 / 43.09
RIAS-B / 2 / .05 / .04 / 1.29 / -.03 / .13 / .23 / 0.00
Racial pride/ Afrocentrality, Q(3) = 34.74**, p <.01 / 12 / -.04* / .02 / -1.97 / -.08 / -.0001 / 9.84 / 75.33
MIBI / 7 / -.15** / .03 / -4.80 / -.21 / -.09 / 8.75 / 31.45
CRIS / 2 / .15** / .05 / 2.91 / .05 / .24 / 0.58 / 0.00
Researcher-made / 2 / .002 / .03 / 0.08 / -.06 / .07 / 0.51 / 0.00
Other / 1 / .03 / .09 / .34 / -.14 / .20 / - / -
Internalization, Q(2) = 17.18**, p <.01 / 5 / -.11 / .06 / -1.80 / -.23 / .01 / .71 / 77.64
MIBI / 1 / .04 / .06 / 0.65 / -.08 / 0.16 / 0.00 / 0.00
CRIS / 2 / -.04 / .05 / -0.78 / -.14 / .06 / 0.31 / 0.00
RIAS-B / 2 / -.23** / .04 / -5.72 / -.31 / -.15 / 0.40 / 0.00
Public regard - MIBI / 6 / -.11** / .02 / -4.33 / -.16 / -.06 / 4.47 / 0.00
Racial socialization, Q(1) = 1.64, p =.20 / 4 / .03 / .05 / 0.64 / -.07 / .13 / 5.73 / 59.30
TERS / 1 / .07 / .06 / 1.10 / -.06 / .19 / - / -
Researcher-made / 3 / -.03 / .08 / -0.38 / -.19 / .13 / 5.73 / 65.10
Ethnic identity / 3 / -.12 / .11 / -1.13 / -.32 / .09 / 12.51** / 84.01

Note. CI: Confidence interval; ** p < .01; * p <.05

Racial Identity and Discrimination - Distress- 1

Table 4.

Comparing Average Effect sizes by Study Features

k / / SE / k / / SE / k / / SE / k / / SE / k / / SE / k / / SE / k / / SE / k SE
Link(a): Relationship between racism and psychological distress
Age / Qb(1) = 4.87*
Child / 8 / .25** / .02
Adult / 8 / .18** / .02
Link(b): Relationship between racism and group identification
Preencounter/
Assimilation / Encounter / Immersion/ Emersion / Afrocentricity/ Racial Central. / Internalization / Public regard / Racial Socialization / Ethnic Identity
Age / Qb(1) = .11 / NA / NA / Qb (1)=15.91** / NA / Qb (1)=.69 / Qb (1)=3.13** / Qb (1)=8.71**
Child / 1 / -.01 / .09 / - / - / - / - / - / - / 6 / .04 / .03 / - / - / - / 4 / -.22** / .03 / 5 / .13** / .03 / 3 .14** .04
Adult / 9 / -.01 / .05 / 3 / .24** / .04 / 9 / .29** / .02 / 11 / .18* / .02 / 9 / .05* / .02 / 3 / -.25** / .09 / 3 / .23** / .05 / 4 -.03 .04
Link(C): Relationship between group identification and psychological distress
Preencounter/
Assimilation / Encounter / Immersion/ Emersion / Afrocentricity/ Racial Central. / Internalization / Public regard / Racial Socialization / Ethnic Identity
Age / Qb(1) = .67 / NA / NA / Qb (1)=13.40* / NA / Qb (1)=1.73 / Qb (1)=1.64 / Qb (1)=12.36**
Child / 1 / .21* / .09 / - / - / - / - / - / - / 6 / -.14* / .05 / - / - / - / 4 / -.08** / .03 / 3 / -.03 / .08 / 2 -.02 .05
Adult / 5 / .14* / .05 / 2 / .14** / .04 / 5 / 0.09* / .03 / 6 / .003 / .05 / 5 / -.11 / .06 / 2 / -.15** / .40 / 1 / .07 / .06 / 1 -.34** .08

Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01

Racial Identity and Discrimination - Distress- 1

Figure 2. Correlations by Measures

Discrimination and Black Cultural Identity - 1