Chapter 18: Toward a New Worldview, 1540 1789 1

Chapter 18: Toward a New Worldview, 1540–1789 1

CHAPTER 18

Toward a New Worldview, 1540–1789

Instructional Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to trace the evolution of new approaches to the study of the natural world. They should be able to assess the impact of this new world-view on ideas about society and human relations. Finally, they should be able to discuss the political implications of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, particularly for monarchial absolutism.

Chapter Outline

I.The Scientific Revolution

A.Scientific Thought in 1500

1.Scientific thought in the early 1500s was based on ancient and medieval ideas.

2.European notions about the universe were based on Aristotelian principles.

3.A chief feature of this view was the belief in a motionless, static earth at the center of the universe.

4.Ten crystal spheres moved around the earth.

B.The Copernican Hypothesis

1.Copernicus overturned the medieval view of the universe.

2.He postulated that the earth revolved around the sun and that the sun was the center of the universe.

3.This heliocentric view was a departure from the medieval view endorsed by both Catholic and Protestant churchmen.

C.From Brahe to Galileo

1.Scholars from Brahe to Galileo refined and collected evidence in support of Copernicus’s model.

2.Brahe built an observatory and collected data.

3.Galileo discovered the laws of motion using the experimental method.

D.Newton’s Synthesis

1.Newton synthesized the integral parts into a whole.

2.Newton integrated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo.

3.He formulated a set of mathematical principles to explain motion.

4.At the core of Newton’s theory was the universal law of gravitation.

E.Causes of the Scientific Revolution

1.Medieval universities had provided the framework for the new view.

2.The Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics.

3.Better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world, including improved tools such as telescopes and sextants, improved the scientific method.

4.Bacon advocated empirical, experimental research.

5.Descartes emphasized deductive reasoning and was the first to graph equations.

F.Science and Society

1.The Scientific Revolution helped create the international scientific community.

2.As governments intervened to support and direct research, the scientific community became closely tied to the state and its agendas.

3.The Scientific Revolution resulted in the development of the scientific method.

4.The Scientific Revolution created few new opportunities for women.

5.The Scientific Revolution had few economic and social consequences for the masses until the eighteenth century.

II.The Enlightenment

A.The Emergence of the Enlightenment

1.The overriding idea of the Enlightenment was that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life.

2.The scientific method can explain the laws of nature.

3.Progress is possible if the laws are understood and followed.

B.The Philosophes and the Public

1.Many writers made Enlightenment thought accessible to a wide range of people.

2.Fontenelle stressed the idea of progress.

3.Skeptics such as Bayle believed that nothing could be known beyond all doubt.

4.Locke stressed that all ideas are derived from experience.

5.The French philosophes were committed to the fundamental reform of society.

6.Montesquieu’s theory of the separation of powers was fundamental.

7.Voltaire challenged traditional Catholic theology.

C.The Enlightenment Outside of France

1.Historians have identified distinctive Enlightenment movements in eighteenth-century Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.

2.Different areas followed different strands of Enlightenment thinking.

3.David Hume (1711–1776) was the most important figure in the Scottish Enlightenment.

D.Urban Culture and the Public Sphere

1.The European market for books grew dramatically in the eighteenth century.

2.Popular titles addressed a wide range of subjects.

3.The illegal book trade included titles denouncing high political figures.

4.The nature of reading changed.

5.Conversation and debate also played a critical role in the Englightenment, with Parisian salons setting the example.

6.Elite women exerted considerable influence on salon culture and on artistic taste in general.

7.The new public sphere celebrated open debate informed by critical reason.

E.Late Enlightenment

1.After 1770, a number of thinkers and writers began to attack the Enlightenment’s faith in reason, progress, and moderation.

2.Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was devoted to individual freedom, but saw rationalism and civilization as enemies of the individual.

3.Rousseau believed in a rigid division of gender roles.

4.The Social Contract (1762) made an important contribution to political theory.

5.Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that serious thinkers should be granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print.

F.Race and the Enlightenment

1.Enlightenment thinkers developed new and highly influential ideas about racial difference.

2.A primary catalyst for new ideas about race was the urge to classify nature.

3.“Race” began to be used in similar way to “species.”

4.Thinkers such as Hume and Kant helped popularize new ideas about race.

5.These ideas did not go unchallenged.

III.The Enlightenment and Absolutism

A.Frederick the Great of Prussia

1.Frederick II built on the accomplishments of his father.

2.He fought successfully to defend Prussia from external threats.

3.Frederick allowed religious freedom and promoted education and legal reform.

4.He was unwilling to change Prussia’s social structure and rejected calls for civil rights for Jews.

B.Catherine the Great of Russia

1.Catherine deposed her husband Peter III and became empress of Russia.

2.Catherine imported Western culture to Russia, supported the philosophers, and introduced limited legal and penal reforms to her adopted country.

3.Pugachev’s rebellion put an end to Catherine’s efforts to reform serfdom.

4.Under Catherine, Russia continued to expand.

C.The Austrian Habsburgs

1.Joseph II (r. 1780–1790) and Maria Theresa (1740–1780) introduced reforms in Austria.

2.Maria Theresa introduced measures aimed at limiting the power of the papacy in her realm, strengthening the central bureaucracy, and improving the lot of the agricultural population.

3.Joseph II pursued reforms aggressively when he came to the throne in 1780.

4.His rapid reforms sent Austria into turmoil and after Joseph’s death, his brother was forced to repeal his radical edicts.

D.Evaluating “Enlightened Absolutism”

1.The leading European monarchs of the later eighteenth century all claimed that they were acting on the principles of the Enlightenment.

2.There is general agreement that such monarchs did spread the cultural values of the Enlightenment.

3.Absolute monarchs believed in change from above and tried to enact reforms.

4.Recent historians have argued that absolutists were primarily interested in strengthening the state, not in pursuing humanitarian goals for their own sake.

Lecture Suggestions

1.“The Idea of Progress.” One of the most fundamental ideas to come out of the Enlightenment was the idea of progress. How has the idea of progress become a kind of closed system for twentieth-century people? How has the idea of progress benefited Western civilization? Sources: P. Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, vol. 1 (1966); J. B. Bury, The Idea of Progress.

2.“How Enlightened Were the So-Called Enlightened Despots?” What reforms actually came about during the reigns of Catherine the Great of Russia and Joseph II of Austria? Were these reforming monarchs really different from their predecessors? Why? Sources: D. Beales, Joseph II (1987); J. Alexander, Catherine the Great: Life and Legend (1989); G. MacDonagh, Frederick the Great (2001); J. Gagliardo, Enlightened Despotism (1967); P. Bernard, Joseph II (1968); D. Ransel, Politics of Catherinean Russia (1975).

3.“Deism and Enlightenment Attitudes toward Religion.” Sources: Rosemary Zita Lauer, The Mind of Voltaire: A Study in his “Constructive Deism” (1961); Herbert Morais, Deism in 18th Century America (1960).

classroom Activities

I.Classroom Discussion Suggestions

A.Who were the architects of the new worldview? What did they contribute to Western civilization?

B.What were the religious views of the philosophers?

C.What impact did the Enlightenment have on political developments?

II.Doing History

A.Have students read and discuss Voltaire’s Candide. How does literature reflect historical events and periods?

B.As an introduction to the ideas of the philosophes, have students read selections from the following sources. They might also be asked to write a paper about what they extract from these primary sources. Sources: S. Gendzier, ed., Denis Diderot: The Encyclopedia: Selections (1967); C. Brinton, ed., The Portable Age of Reason (1956).

C.What role did women play in the Enlightenment? How did the Enlightenment change attitudes toward women? Sources: S. Spenser, ed., French Women and the Age of Enlightenment (1984); K. Rogers, Feminism in Eighteenth-Century England (1982); E. Fox-Genovese, “Women in the Enlightenment,” in R. Bridentha and C. Koonz, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History (1987).

III.Cooperative Learning Activities

A.Organize the class into six teams. Charge each team with learning about one of the leading figures of the Enlightenment. Allow students to discuss their findings with one another in class. Then have all teams make a presentation on the figure they researched. Instructors might require each team to have picture(s) of the figure, a timeline of his life, and a list of contributions he made to the thought of the Enlightenment. Teams might research Voltaire, Montesquieu, Bacon, Galileo, Newton, Diderot, or others.

B.Examining the Teams

At this juncture in the semester, you may wish to examine the teams once again. Teams are encouraged to study lecture notes, text, study guide, and any work prepared by the teams. Teams are encouraged to devise ways of studying for the exam. Class time might be allowed for teams to divide up individual study materials. Instructors, on exam day, will give an exam to the class. The exam is graded. Then, the teams are allowed to take the exam, team members assisting each other. When team exams are graded, each student receives an average of his/her individual and team scores. Compare to see which has been more successful.

Map Activity

1.On a blank outline map of Europe, have students identify the locations of important scientific discoveries. Then have them answer the following questions.

a.What were the conditions in those locations that contributed to these discoveries?

b.How do these places contrast with centers of absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe?

Audiovisual Bibliography

1.Civilization: The Smile of Reason. (52 min. Color. Time-Life Films.)

2.The Majestic Clock-Work. Parts I and II. (26 min. each. Color. BBC and Time-Life Films.)

3.Dinner at Baron d’Holbach’s. (24 min. Color. Open University, England.)

4.Voltaire: Candide. (Videodisc. 112 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)

5.Simearth. (Software. Learning Services.)

6.World Atlas for Multimedia PC. (CD-ROM. Society for Visual Education, Inc.)

7.Time Table of History: Science and Innovation. (CD-ROM. Society for Visual Education, Inc.)

8.ARTFL Encyclopédie ()

9.Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/mozart.html)

10.LouvreMuseum: Virtual Tour ()

internet resources

1.Copernicus ()

2.The Galileo Project (es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo)

3.Isaac Newton Resources ()

4.John Locke (plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke)

5.The Enlightenment ()

6.The Scientific Revolution (web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/pages/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home)

suggested reading

The first three authors cited in the Notes—Butterfield, Smith, and Hall—have written excellent general interpretations of the scientific revolution. These may be compared with S. Shapin, The Scientific Revolution (2001), which is concise and well informed with an eye for the dramatic, and with M. Jacob, The Cultural Meaning of the Scientific Revolution (1988). M. Osler, ed., Rethinking the Scientific Revolution (2000), re-examines the impact of scientific discovery on religious belief. Schiebinger, cited in the Notes, discusses how the new science excluded women. J. Broad, cited in the Notes, discusses women philosophers’ responses to Cartesianism, while J. Conley, The Suspicion of Virtue: Women Philosophers in Neoclassical France examines the moral philosophy espoused by women of the salons. A. Debus, Man and Nature in the Renaissance (1978), is good on the Copernican revolution. L. Jardine, Ingenious Pursuits: Building the Scientific Revolution (1999), is an engaging analysis of scientific institutions and English society. S. Drake, Galileo (1980), is a good short biography, while P. Machamer, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Galileo (1998), examines the many aspects of Galileo’s enormous creativity. For biographies of Newton, see R. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton (1993), and F. Manuel, The Religion of Isaac Newton (1974).

Hazard, listed in the Notes, is a classic study of the formative years of Enlightenment thought. R. Reill and E. Wilson, Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (1996), is helpful on culture and the leading philosophes. M. Jacob, The Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents (2000), is also recommended. T. Munck, The Enlightenment: A Comparative History (2000), examines developments in different countries. Important studies from the cultural perspective include D. Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the Enlightenment (1994), and A. Farge, Subversive Worlds: Public Opinion in Eighteenth Century France (1994). D. Roche, France in the Enlightenment (1998) provides a panorama of life and thought, action and wit. P. Gay has written several major studies on the Enlightenment: Voltaire’s Politics (1959) and The Party of Humanity (1971) are two of the best. J. Sklar, Montesquieu (1987), is an engaging biography, and R. Riley, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau (2001), presents a useful, wide-ranging introduction. F. Baumer, Religion and the Rise of Skepticism (1969), and H. Payne, The Philosophes and the People (1976), are major studies. The changing attitudes of the educated public are imaginatively analyzed by R. Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution (1991) R. Danton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France (1995), explores the struggle between the government’s censorship and the public’s taste. On women, see the stimulating study by Fox-Genovese cited in the Notes, as well as the collected work by N. Davis and A. Farge, eds., A History of Women: Renaissance and Enlightenment Paradoxes (1993). More specialized studies include C. Hesse, The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern (2003), a study of women’s rise in French intellectual life from the late eighteenth century; S. Spencer, ed., French Women and the Age of Enlightenment (1984); and K. Rogers, Feminism in Eighteenth-Century England (1982). J. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (1988) examines women’s complex relationship to the emerging public sphere. On race and the Enlightenment, the reader by E. Eze cited in the notes is a valuable and pioneering source. S. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire (2003) examines Enlightenment figures’ opposition to colonialism.

Above all, one should read some of the philosophes and let them speak for themselves. Two good anthologies are C. Brinton, ed., The Portable Age of Reason (1956), and F. Manuel, ed., The Enlightenment (1951). Voltaire’s most famous and very amusing novel, Candide, is highly recommended, as is Denis Diderot, This Is Not a Story and Other Stories (1991).

On “enlightened absolutism”, see H. Scott, Enlightened Absolutism (1990); C. Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (1975); and J. Gagliardo, Enlightened Despotism (1967), all of which have useful bibliographies. C. Behrens, Society, Government, and the Enlightenment: The Experience of Eighteenth-Century France and Prussia(1985) is a stimulating comparative study. J. Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (1989), skillfully analyzes the impact of Enlightenment thought in Spain. Important works on Austria include C. Macartney, Maria Theresa and the House of Austria (1970); D. Beales, Joseph II (1987); and T. Blanning, Joseph II and Enlightened Absolutism (1970). There are several fine works on Russia. J. Alexander, Catherine the Great: Life and Legend (1989), is the best biography of the famous ruler, which may be compared with the empress’s own story, The Memoirs of Catherine the Great, ed. D. Maroger (1961). I. de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (1981), is strongly recommended. G. MacDonagh, Frederick the Great (2001), is an outstanding biography, and H. Scott, The Rise of the Eastern Powers, 1756–1775 (2001), carefully examines the growing importance of Prussia and Russia. Two excellent works on Moses Mendelssohn are the brilliant study by D. Sorkin, Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment (1996), and the popular biography of the family by H. Kupferberg, The Mendelssohns: Three Generations of Genius (1972). J. Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 (1985), is recommended.