School Certificate Notes
HISTORY
Focus Issues
1. What has been the nature of the relationship between Australia and the rest of the world?
2. What have been the significant developments in Australia’s political history?
3. What have been the significant developments in Australia’s social and cultural history?
4. What has been the changing nature of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal relations in Australia?
5. How have the rights and freedoms of various gender, cultural, social and economic groups changed?
History
1. Australian Social and Political Life to 1914
How and why did Federation occur?
- 1883: Federal Council was formed
o Met every 2 years
o Discussed minor matters
o Had no power to make laws
o Dissolved in 1899
- 1889: Sir Henry Parkes called for a Parliamentary Convention of Australia – meeting of delegates from colonies
- 1881: Convention held, draft constitution drawn up
- 1893: Australian Natives Association proposes second Convention
- 1898: First Referendum held and fails
- 1900: Queen Victoria signs the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act
- 1901: Australia officially begins as a nation
o Economic advantage
§ customs barriers/taxes abolished
o Defence
§ One large army would be more efficient
o White Australia
§ Restricting migration
o Nationalistic sentiments
§ Reflected in art and media – people thought of themselves as Australians rather than British
o Uniform laws and cooperation
§ Transport
§ Railways
§ Telephones
§ Post
What are the main features of Australia’s Constitution?
- Sets out the rules of the Commonwealth, or Federal government
- Defines the federal powers; all other matters are left with the states
- An Upper House, the Senate, was created, where all states have the same number of members
- Constitution can only be changed by a Referendum, where people vote yes or no – must be passed by majority of Australians and majority of states
- Parliament
o Monarch as head of state, Senate and House of Reps
o Makes laws
- 3 levels of government
o federal, state and local
- will be interpreted by the High Court
How did Federation affect Australia’s links to England?
- Australians took more responsibility for their own affairs
- Strong links with Britain still remained, as Australia was influenced by
o Foreign policy, defence and trade
§ Britain had special treatment, eg lower tariffs
§ If war broke out, Australian navy would be under British
o Legal systems
§ British businessmen had protection for their businesses – appeals could go to the Privy Council of Britain – abolished in 1986
o Political systems – initial appointment of British Governor-Generals
What was life like in Australia at the beginning of the 20th century?
- laissez-faire economic policies of government, interfering very little
- vast differences between rich and poor
o Upper class: very rich, owned large amounts of land, large business or inherited wealth
o Middle class: small shopkeepers, people who owned a living from professional occupations eg lawyers, teachers and accountants, or who were self-employed
o Lower class: working under a boss in a manual job, little money and few opportunities for leisure
- women, indigenous people and migrants had few rights
- enormous changes were taking place – eg technology
- standard of living began to rise
- Labor party began to increase wages and improve working conditions
- socially conservative society
Was Australia a working man’s paradise?
- Australian workers were much better off than those overseas
- Social security legislation passed in 1905
- Old age pensions were introduced for people over 65 from 1909
- Shorter working hours, basic wage, increased leisure time, invalid pensions, workers compensation and maternity allowance
- Australians ate better food and worked fewer days to pay for their food
- Australian government passed introduced many reforms that we take for granted today
Which groups in Australian society could not vote in 1901?
- Aboriginal people
- Women
-
How did women achieve voting rights?
- 1890s: women began to enter workforce at greater rates
- 1894: SA granted women suffrage
- 1899: WA granted women suffrage
- 1902: Women had federal suffrage, NSW gives suffrage
- 1908: VIC was final state to give women suffrage
How did the voting rights of various groups in Australia compare with the rest of the world?
- women had voting rights relatively early
- New Zealand and Australia had women well ahead
- NZ was the first to give female suffrage in 1893
- 1918: Canada
- 1920: USA
- 1928: GB
- 1946: Japan
Why did Australia restrict non-white immigration?
- Economic factors
o People lost their jobs and were replaced by migrants working on lower wages
o Asians were accepting of lower wages and working conditions
- Racist attitudes
o Belief in white superiority
What were the main features of the White Australia Policy?
- Immigration Restriction Act, 1901
o Dictation test for migrants, designed to be failed
- Pacific Island Labourers Act, 1901
o All Kanakas were forced to leave unless they had been born in Australia or had been living in QLD before 1871
How did the White Australia Policy reflect Australia’s view of Asia and indigenous peoples?
- belief in White superiority
- fear of other races bringing in cultural changes to the "Good Australian ways"
- "all Australians should be alike"
What forms of dispossession were carried out against Aboriginal people?
- traditional land was taken by colonists for sheep pastures and European-style settlements
- Europeans viewed the land as a commodity which could be purchased and used until its resources were depleted
- Aboriginal people viewed the land as a living part of them which could not be bought or sold and maintained a spiritual relationship with it
How was paternalism applied to Aboriginal peoples?
- Paternalism an attitude that led to dealing with Aboriginal people as a father deals with his children
- They were seen as inferior and in need of protection
- Increasing concerns due to decline in number of Aborigines
- Charles Darwin's book described "survival of the fittest" - thus it was believed that the "weaker" Aboriginal people would eventually die out
How was the policy of protection implemented?
- Crown land was used to create reserves for Aborigines starting in the 1850s
- Aborigines lived and worked independently on reserves
- They maintained their tribal customs
- Few lived on "White Charity"
- This was undermined by
o A decision by the Privy Council in 1889 that the land was "terra nullius", and Aboriginal peoples had no right to own the land
o An economic depression in the 1890s during which Aboriginal people began to ask to be placed on ration lists
o Part-aborigines began to be moved off the land
o Reserve land began to be sold off to farmers, and Aborigines were moved away
2. Australia and World War I
Why did Australia become involved in World War I?
- Support for Britain
- 96% of Australians had British ancestry
- Demonstrate loyalty
- Fear that the "opportunity for adventure" would pass
- Desire to avoid disapproval of young women who thought not volunteering was a sign of cowardice
- Chance to earn higher wages
- Sense of duty to enlist
- Hatred of the Germans
What were the main aspects of Australia’s involvement in the Gallipoli campaign?
- entire assault was a failure from the beginning
- Anzac Cove
o Turks had huge advantages eg positioning
o British miscalculations undermined success chances
o Tried to maintain control of beach and construct trenches
o Were unsuccessful and had to be withdrawn
- Lone Pine
o Anzacs were successful
o Anzacs suffered 2300 casualties, Turks suffered 6000
- The Nek
o Four suicidal charges against Turkish
o Designed to distract the Turks so British could land on Suvla Bay
o 234 light-horsemen died, 138 were wounded
How did events at Gallipoli create the Anzac legend?
- military defeat, bravery and sacrifices associated with eight-month struggle
- participation was a symbol of coming of age of nation
- characteristics of a "true Australian"
o common sense
o bravery
o willingness to endure hardship
o spirit of independence
o reluctance to accept unquestioningly the authority of others
o apparent lack of class distinction
What were the arguments for and against conscription?
- FOR
o National honour – not deserting Britain in a time of need
o Essential response against evil "Hun"
o Means of supporting men who were already fighting
o Ensure service was shared fairly
o Could exclude men with wives and children and males under 19
o Men who had not enlisted were shameful
- AGAINST
o General anti-war movement – eg pacifists
o Unions feared members would be replaced by cheap foreign/female labour
o It was unjust to force someone to go to war
o Working classes would bear the burden of conscription, and the more privileged could get out of it
o Australia had already given enough (Catholic church)
o A compulsory call-up would deprive farmers of their workers
How did the conscription debates divide Australians?
- PM William Hughes sought the power to conscript men for military service outside Australia
- Changing attitudes – some felt loyalty to Britain was vital
- Highlighted divisions about religion, class and inequality of sacrifice that Australian soldiers should bear
What impact did the war have on the role of women?
- voluntary work
o Australian Army Nursing Service
o Australian Comforts Fund, providing "comfort boxes" for soldiers
o Raising money eg by selling cakes, fetes, door-knock appeals etc
o AWSC – Australian Women's Service Corps – more active role – eg ambulance drivers, cooks or hospital orderlies
- paid work
o reserve labour force – short-term place in workforce
o women's wages were half male wage
3. Australia between the Wars
How and why did Australian society and culture change in the 1920s? What aspects remained the same?
- New technology: jazz music, motor cars, electricity, radio and refrigerators
- Ordinary lives were improved through medical breakthroughs
- Rapid economic growth
o Men: Assisted migration from Britain
o Money: Funding from Britain
o Markets: Trade with Britain
- Health breakthroughs
o Spanish Influenza hit in 1918
o Nursing grew in respectability
o Government inquiry into unscientific medicines was launched
o Royal Flying Doctor Service for rural people
- Rapid social changes
o Female employment began to increase, especially in teaching, nursing, textiles, food, typing and clerical work
o With mass entertainment, American culture came to Australia
o Young women known as "flappers" showed increased freedom in fashion and behaviour
How and why was Australia affected by the Great Depression?
- Britain recalled debts, and Australia owed Britain millions of pounds
- Unemployment rose
- Selling price of agricultural products on international market fell
- Drop in earning ability from primary exports
- Australia came close to bankruptcy
What were the differing experiences of various groups in Australia during the Great Depression?
- the unemployed suffered the humiliation of not having a job and being unable to support their families – many could not cope
- the middle-class were able to buy out people who had fallen on hard times, and profited by the fact that prices fell faster than their wages
How did governments respond to the problems caused by the Great Depression?
- Inflation
o Continued cuts in government spending and wages
o Raising taxes
o Keeping up payment of overseas loans
o Suggested by Sir Otto Niemeyer, from the Bank of England
- Deflation
o Increase in government spending, especially on welfare
o Relief work for the unemployed
o Reduction of repayments on overseas loans
o Suggested by Jack Lang, the Premier of New South Wales
How and why were Aboriginal children removed from their families?
- Policy of assimilation
- Labelled children of Aboriginal background as neglected and destitute
- Government and church institutions would teach children to "think white, look white and act white"
- Children were forcibly removed or parents were forced to sign documents, often which they could not leave
What have been the consequences of these policies?
- the children did not move onto a better life
- many were sent to do hard labour eg farm work
- when they grew up, the people suffered from an inability to function as normal adults, eg they suffered from family breakdowns and turning to alcoholism, or even suicide
What was the Day of Mourning and why was it important in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal relations?
- Australia celebrated 150 years of white settlement
- Aborigines urged government to bring about new laws for the education and care of Aboriginal peoples and policies that would bring full citizenship and equality
- Commemorating 150 years of misery and degradation imposed upon Aborigines
- Ask for a New Deal – a fair deal for Aborigines
- Significant move by Aboriginal people to claim rights
4. Australia and World War II
Why was Australia involved in World War II?
- loyalty to Britain at first
- little fighting in Europe at first – winter meant war was delayed by seven months – however, some men slowly volunteered
- when Japan declared war on America in 1941, the threat came to the Pacific and Australia had a need to defend itself as it was vulnerable – lots of land, small population
- Britain, the protector, had fallen, as Singapore was captured by the Japanese
What were some of the experiences of Australians as a result of their involvement in the war?
- Darwin
o 19 Feb 1942
o approx 250 killed, 100s wounded, much of town destroyed
o US base moved to Aus – Philippines under threat, Presidential orders
o Sydney: people educated, barbed wire, boom nets to prevent invasion
- Kokoda
o Japanese would go Owen Stanley Ranges to Port Moresby