Chapter 26: Cold War Conflicts
Section 1: Origins of the Cold War
-The US and the Soviet Union emerged from WWII as two “Superpowers” with vastly different political & economic systems.
Former Allies Clash
-Besides their communists & capitalist system, the US was furious at how Stalin at first supported Hitler, then only after Hitler invaded the Soviet Union he supported the Allies.
-The US & the Soviets became more suspicious of each other during the war.
-Relations worsened after Stalin learned about the secret development of the A-bomb.
The UN
*United Nations (UN)- April 25, 1945, the representatives of 50 nations met in San Francisco to establish a new peace keeping body.
-Both the US & the Soviet Union used the UN as a forum to spread their influence over others.
Truman Becomes President
-FDR died- Truman became president (12 April 1945)
-During his term as VP, Truman had not been included in top policy decisions.
-He did not even know about the development of the Atomic Bomb.
The Potsdam Conference (July 1945)
-“The Big Three”- The US, GB, & the Soviet Union not at the final war time conference at Potsdam near Berlin.
-At the earlier Yalta Conference, Stalin promised FDR that he would allow free elections in Poland & other parts of East Europe that he occupied. By July 1945, it was clear that he would not keep this promise.
Tension Mounts
-Truman was upset at Stalin’s refusal to all free elections.
-Truman’s goal in demanding free elections was to spread democracy to nations that had been under Nazi rule. (Self-determination)
-After hard bargaining, it was agreed that the Soviet, British, Americans, & French would take reparations mainly from their own occupation zones within Germany.
Soviets tighten their grip on Eastern Europe
-Stalin installed communist govts in Albania, Bulgaria, Czech, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, & Poland.
*Satellite Nations- countries dominated by the Soviet Union.
US Established a Policy of Containment
-February 1946- George F. Kennan- an American diplomat in Moscow, proposed a policy of *containment- taking measures to prevent any extension of communist rule to other countries.
-The policy began to guide the Truman administration’s foreign policy.
-Western Europe was mostly democratic & Eastern Europe was communist. *“Iron Curtain”- came to stand for the division of Europe.
-Stalin felt that these words from Churchill were a “call to war”.
Cold War in Europe
*Cold War- a conflict between the US & the Soviet Union in which neither nation directly confronted the other on the battlefield. (1945-1991)
The Truman Doctrine
-Britain was sending economic & military support to Greece & Turkey to prevent a communist takeover.
-Because of the war GB could no longer afford to do so.
-March 1947- Truman asked congress for $400 million in economic & military aid for Greece & Turkey.
*Truman Doctrine – declared that “it must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure.”
*The Marshall Plan
-June 1947- Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that the US provided aid to all European nations that needed it, saying that this move was directed “not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation & chaos.”
-For the next 4 years, 16 countries received some $13 billion in aid.
-By 1952, Western Europe was flourishing, and the communist party had lost much of its appeal to voters.
Superpowers Struggle Over Germany
-After WWII, Germany was divided into 4 zones.
-1948- GB, France, & the US decided to combine their three zones into one nation in East Germany.
-The three nations had no written agreement with the Soviets guaranteeing free access to Berlin by road or rail.
-Stalin saw this loophole & moved to try to take over the part of Berlin held by the three western powers.
-June 1948- Stalin closed all highways & routes into West Berlin.
-Result: No food or fuel could reach that part of the city.
-2.1million residents only had enough food to last 5 weeks. *Berlin Airlift – American & British officials started to fly food & supplies into West Berlin.
-Lasted 327 days – 277,000 flights.
-May 1949- the Soviet Union lifted the blockade.
-In the same month, the western part of Germany officially became the Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany.
-Later the Soviet Union created the German Democratic Republic, called East Germany.
The NATO Alliance
*North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- 4 April 1949-12 nations formed a defensive military alliance. They pledged military support to one another in case any member was attacked.
-It was the first time the US had ever made a peacetime alliance.
Section 2: The Cold War Heats Up
-After WWII, China became a communist nation (1949) & Korea was split into a communist north and a democratic south.
China Becomes a Communist Country
-For 2 decades, Chinese communist had struggled against the nationalist government of *Chiang Kai-Shek.
-The US supported Chiang.
-US officials found his government inefficient & hopelessly corrupt.
-The communists, led by Mao Zedong- gained strength throughout the country. (Red Army)
-By 1945, much of northern china was under communist control.
Renewed Civil War
-So as the defeated Japanese left China at the end of WWII, cooperation between the nationalists & the Communist ceased & again civil war erupted.
-Although, the US did support the nationalist with aid, Truman would not send troops.
-May 1949- Chiang & the remnants of his demoralized government fled to the island of *Taiwan- which westerns called Formosa.
-The communists set up a new government, the *People’s Republic of China (PRC), which the US refused to accept as China’s true government.
-Americans were stunned that containment had failed.
-Americans fear of communism began to burn out of control.
The Korean War
-Japan had taken over Korea in 1910 & ruled it until 1945.
*38th parallel (38° North latitude)- Japanese troops north of this surrendered to the Soviets.
-Japanese troops south of the parallel surrendered to the Americans.
-As in Germany, one became communist and one became democratic.
-1948 – Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established in the zone that had been occupied by the US
-The Communists formed the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in the north.
-As America began to cut back in South Korea, the Soviets concluded that the US would not fight to defend it.
North Korea Attacks South Korea
-25 June 1950 North Korea forces swept across the 38th parallel in a surprise attack on South Korea.
-This became known as the *Korean War.
-South Korea called on the UN to stop North Korea.
-When it came to a vote, the Soviet Union was not there. They were boycotting the council in protest over the presence of Nationalist China (Taiwan). The vote passed.
-27 June - Truman ordered troops in Japan to support South Korea.
-16 nations sent some 520,000 troops to aid South Korea.
-Over 90% were American – under the command of MacArthur.
The US Fights in Korea
-At first, North Korea seemed unstoppable.
-MacArthur launched a counter attack that drove them back across the 38th parallel.
The Chinese Fight Back
-In late November 1950- 300,000 Chinese troops joined the war on the side of North Korea.
-The Chinese wanted North Korea as a communist buffer state to protect their northeastern provinces that made up Manchania.
-Chinese troops outnumbered UN forces.
-For 2 years, the two sides fought to obtain strategic positions, but neither side was able to make important advances.
MacArthur Recommends Attacking China
-Called for the use of nuclear weapons against Chinese cities.
-Truman rejected.
-Attacking China would bring the Soviet Union into it, setting off WWIII.
-Instead, the UN & South Korea forces began to advance once more, pushing them back to the 38th parallel.
MacArthur Versus Truman
-Mac continued to urge the waging of a full-scale war against China, by trying to go over the President’s head.
-Despite repeated warnings, MacArthur continued to criticize the President.
-April 1, 1951 – Truman fired MacArthur.
-Many Americans were outraged by their hero’s downfall. 69% backed MacArthur.
-“Old Soldiers never die, they just fade away.”
Setting for Stalemate
-The Soviet Union unexpectedly suggested a cease-fire on 23 June 1951.
-The opposing sides had agreed on 2 points: the location of the cease-fire line at the existing battle line & the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) between the opposing sides.
-July 1953 – they signed an armistice ending war.
-At best the agreement was a stalemate.
Section 3: The Cold War at Home
-During the late 1940s and early 1950s, fear of communism led to reckless charges against innocent citizens.
Fear of Communist Influence
-The Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and the Communist takeover of China shocked the American public, fueling a fear that communism would spread around the world.
-March 1947- Truman issued an executive order setting up the Federal Employee Loyalty Program, which included the Loyalty Review Board.
-Its purpose was to investigate govt employees and to dismiss those who were found disloyal to the US.
*The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)- was another agency that investigate possible Communist influence. They believed that Communists were sneaking propaganda into films.
*Hollywood Ten- 10 witnesses from the film industry that refused to cooperate w/ the HUAC’s investigation of communist influence in Hollywood. They were sent to prison because they refused to answer questions.
*Blacklist- were used by Hollywood executives, a list of people whom they condemned for having a communist background. (Approx. 500 actors, writers, producers, and directors could no longer work.)
-1950- Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act-making it unlawful to plan any action that might lead to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship in the US. Truman vetoed it and Congress went over him to pass it.
Spy Cases Stun the Nation
*Algen Hiss- was accused of spying for the Soviet Union. He was convicted of perjury and sent to jail.
*Ethel & Julius Rosenberg- minor activists in the American Communist Party.
-They were found guilty of espionage and sentenced to death. (June 1953-electric chair).
Sep. 1949- Soviets exploded an atomic bomb. Most experts thought it would take 3-5 yrs.
-America believed spies were helping the Soviets.
McCarthy Launches His “Witch Hunt”
*Senator Joseph McCarthy- a Republican from Wisconsin, became the most famous anti-Communist activist.
*McCarthyism- the attacks, often unsubstantiated, by McCarthy & others on people suspected of being communists in the early 1950’s.
-He refused to unfair tactic of accusing people of disloyalty without providing evidence.
-Downfall: 1954- McCarthy made accusations against the US Army, which led to a televised Senate investigation. (Lost support).
Section 4: Two Nations Live on the Edge
-During the 1950s, the US and the Soviet Union came to the brink of nuclear war.
Brinkmanship Rules US Policy
Race for the H-Bomb
-An even more destructive then nuclear weapons was the hydrogen bomb, or *H-bomb. (67 times the power of the A-Bomb)
-1 Nov. 1952- US won the race- Aug 1953- the Soviets had their own.
The Policy of Brinkmanship
*Dwight D. Eisenhower- was president and *John Fasten Dulles- was his Secretary of State and a staunch anti-Communist.
-Brinkmanship- the practice of threatening an enemy with massive military retaliation for any aggression.
The Cold War Spreads Around the World
-Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)- used spies to gather information aboard, began to carry out covert, or secret, operations to weaken or overthrow govt unfriendly to the US.
Covert Actions in the Middle East & Latin America
-1951- Iran’s PM, Mohammed Mossadegh, nationalized Iran’s oil fields, placing them under Iranian control.
-GB stopped buying Iranian oil & the US feared that Mossadegh might turn to Soviets for help.
-The CIA gave several million to anti-Mossadegh supports.
-The CIA wanted the pro-American Shah of Iran to be put back in power.
-The Shah returned and turned over control of Iranian oil fields to Western companies.
*Warsaw Pact- a military alliance formed in 1955 by the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites.
A Summit in Geneva
-IKE traveled to Geneva, Switzerland, to meet w/ Soviet leaders.
-This was seen as a move towards peace.
*The Suez war- 1955- Egypt nationalized the canal that was owned by GB and France.
-It was supposed to be opened to all nations- GB, Frances, Israel sent troops.
-The UN persuaded these 3 nations to pull out it allowed Egypt to keep control of the canal.
*Eisenhower Doctrine- 1957 warning that said the US would defend the Middle East against an attack by any Communist country. (Approved the doctrine).
The Hungarian Uprising
-Revolt began in Hungary-1956, which was dominated by the Soviet Union since the end of WWII.
-They wanted a democratic govt.
-The Soviet response was quick and brutal. (approx. 30,000 killed)
-Revolt leader Imre Nagy was overthrown and pro-Soviet leaders were put in place. 200,000 Hungarians fled to the West.
-Despite the Truman Doctrine, the US did nothing to help Hungary break free of Soviet control.
-Many Hungarians were disappointed- the American policy of containment did not extend to driving Soviets out of its satellites.
The Cold War Takes to the Skies
-1953- Stalin died-*Nikita Krushcheu gained power.
-He believed that communism would take over the world, but thought that it could triumph peacefully.
The Space Race
-October 4, 1957- the Soviet Union launched Sputnik- world’s first artificial satellite.
-Americans poured money into their own space program in order to catch up to the Soviets.
-US- first attempt was a failure.
-January 31, 1958- the US had its first successful launch.
A U-2 is shot down
-CIA began making secret high-altitude flights over Soviet territory.
-As a U-2 passed over, its infrared cameras took detailed photos of troop movement and missile sites.
*Francis Gary Powers- was a U-2 pilot. On May 1, 1960- a Soviet pilot shot down his plane, and Powers was forced to parachute into Soviet-controlled territory.
-The Soviets captured him & sentenced him to 10 years in prison.
Renewed Confrontation
At first IKE denied that the U-2 had been spying.
After the Soviets supplied evidence, IKE had to admit it.
-Krushcheu demanded an apology for the flights and a promise to halt them.
IKE agreed to stop the flights but did not apologize.
Krushcheu called off the next summit, which was planned with IKE.
*U-2 incident- led to the 1960’s opening with tension between the two super powers as great as ever.
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