Learning From a Position of Power:
Female Entrepreneurs in Male-Dominated Business Contexts
Daniele D. Flannery, Ph.D
The Pennsylvania State University-Harrsiburg
Elizabeth Coyle
The Pennsylvania State University-Harrisburg
Abstract
This study utilized phenomenological methodology within the qualitative paradigm to understand how the position of power influenced the learning of female entrepreneurs operating their businesses in male-dominated business arenas. Open-ended, semi-structured interviews and the critical incident technique were the primary methods of data collection. The analysis of the findings was grounded within studies of women’s workplace learning and female entrepreneurs’ learning and filtered through the lens of poststructural feminist theory. The results of this studywere unique because the women continually perceived themselves to be in a position of privilege and power rather than oppression during gender-related encounters. The varied gendered contexts in which they learned resulted in the development of an extensive knowledge base on how to garner and wield their power.
Key words: female entrepreneurs’ learning, power, context, workplace learning, lifelong learning
Introduction
Research into gender and learning in the workplace is ongoing. Emerging themes include the influence of power on women’s formal and informal learning within work organizations (Munroe, Holly, & Rainbird, 2000), learning leadership (Wajcman, 1998) and networking styles (Ibarra, 1993), and the types of work knowledge women produce and value (MacKeracher & McFarland, 1993/1994). Additionally, women’s workplace learning researchers have investigated the influence of women’s acts of accommodation and resistance to power (Fenwick, 1998; Bierema, 1999), the development of alternative forms of knowledge in response to power issues (Fenwick, 1998, Fletcher, 1999), and the influences of social location or positionality on women’s learning (Bierema, 1999; Fletcher, 1999).
While issues of power, position, agency, and women’s learning in relation to oppression within the patriarchal structures of organizations have been examined, little attention has been paid to the interaction between women’s workplace learning and positionality when women operate from a position of privilege
Two studies have explored women’s learning in relation to issues of power and privilege in work organizations, but did not fully explain how this occurred during their learning. Bierema’s (1999), study of women in Fortune 500 companies noted that the change agents in her study believed that they were in a unique position of power to lobby for social change within their organizations. However, she did not explicitly link how their perceived privilege within the organization influenced the use of that privilege.
Fletcher (1999) investigated how female design engineers responded to the power structures of male-dominated work organizations during their learning. She found that the women continued to use and highly valued relational learning approaches in the workplace even though the larger work organization did not recognize or reward the types of relational knowledge that the women employed. However, how they learned to wield enough power to continue to use their preferred ways of learning without jeopardizing their careers is not clear.
A workplace setting where women operate from a position of privilege is within businesses that they themselves own. Globally, women-owned firms comprise between one-quarter and one-third of all businesses (Center for Women’s Business Research, 1999). While women remain underrepresented among entrepreneurs, their numbers are expanding rapidly (Clothier, 2001). However, little is known about this burgeoning population (Clothier, 2001). Thus, it is within this literature on the female entrepreneur that further insights were sought on the interaction between women’s workplace learning and positionality when women operate from a position of privilege.
Literature on female entrepreneurs has focused on the psychological (Fenwick & Hutton, 2000; Nelson, 1987; Rozier, 1995; Wells, 1998) and relational aspects (Chaganti, 1986; Kamau, McLean, & Ardishvilli, 1999; Wells, 1998; Fenwick & Hutton, 2000) of women’s learning. While these studies identified that the female entrepreneurs were agents of their own learning, recognized that the women’s positions of power as heads of their organizations influenced their ability to choose what, when, and how they learned, they did not fully delineate how this occurs. Furthermore, they largely ignored the larger context of the historical, cultural, economic, and positional social structures in which the female entrepreneurs were operating their business and its influence on their learning. This is significant given the fact that previous studies of female and male entrepreneurs indicated that environmental factors (Kolvereid, Shane, & Westhead, 1993) and position in society (Birley, 1989; Spinder, 2000) play a role in entrepreneurs’ perceptions and business activities.
Additionally, these researchers (Fenwick & Hutton, 2000; Nelson, 1987; Rozier, 1995; Wells, 1998) drew conclusions about female entrepreneurs’ learning based on sample populations that combined women who operated their businesses in both female- and male-dominated business arenas. These studies did not take into consideration the structures of power within the varying contexts of male- and female-dominated industries and their possible influence on the women’s learning.
This study endeavored to fill those gaps. As such the goalsof the study were: (a) to explore the influence of both context and power on the learning of female entrepreneurs operating their companies specifically in male-dominated business contexts, (b) to investigate the notion that positionality influences women’s creation of knowledge, and (c) to explore how women are both shaped by and shape their learning experiences through their acts of agency.
Research Question
Does, and if so how does, positionality and agency within shifting contexts influence the learning of female entrepreneurs in male-dominated business arenas?
Theoretical/Conceptualization Approach
Poststructural feminist theory (Collins, 2000; Mayberry & Rose, 1999; Tisdell, 1998) provided the theoretical framework for this research. Poststructural feminist theory maintains that women’s position within gender, race, class, and other structures of privilege and oppression influences how they make meaning of their experiences (Collins, 2000; Flax, 1989). It also believes that women do not always accept their particular position within society’s power structures when they experience oppression in their lives. Instead, women can choose to accommodate (accept) or resist the oppression by engaging in acts of agency (Collins, 2000; Flax, 1989; Mayberry & Rose, 1999). The relationship between women’s position, which can change from one context to the next, their subjective experience of their position, and their agency determine how women define who they are, how they create knowledge, the kinds of knowledge they create, and the knowledge they believe to be true (Tisdell, 1998).
Design
This study employed a phenomenological methodology to investigate the learning experiences of a purposeful sample of female entrepreneurs in Central Pennsylvania who operate their businesses within traditionally male-dominated business contexts. Participants were identified through published listings of women-owned and minority-owned businesses, through economic and small business development organizations, and through a snowball sampling strategy.
Data Collection
Primary data collection procedures included open-ended, semi-structured interviews and the critical incident technique. The women were interviewed twice on-site at their respective businesses for approximately three hours. The interviews focused on descriptions of the varying contexts in which the women learned, their subjective experiences of power in these contexts, and how issues of power and context combined to influence their learning.
Demographics
A purposeful sampling of twelve female entrepreneurs operating their businesses in the arenas of agriculture, communication/technology, construction, finance, manufacturing, geophysical scanning, recycled products and sales, auto glass repair, and patent law served as participants in this study. All of the women played a primary role in the start-up and daily management of their businesses and held at least majority equity in their business. All but one of the women operated their businesses either as a sole proprietorship, a limited liability company, or as a privately-held corporation. This woman headed a non-profit philanthropic foundation. The number of individuals employed by the women ranged from two to eighty. The length of years in business ranged from three to twenty two years and all of the women had experienced gross revenue increases over the past two years.
The women in this study ranged in age from thirty two to fifty five years. Eleven of the women in this study were Caucasian and two were African American. All but two of the women continued their education beyond high school. Three of the women held graduate degrees.
Data Analysis
Transcripts were analyzed in tandem with the tape recordings of the interviews, field notes and a reflective journal kept by the researcher. An indexing and categorization system was developed from the events, ways of thinking and feeling, and patterns of behavior described by the women. This system of analysis was used for each sample unit along with an analysis of emerging similar themes, patterns, and relationships that existed across the participants’ narratives. Each new sample unit was analyzed in relation to the previous data collected. Expanded versions of the invariant themes that revealed the deeper meaning of the women’s learning experiences were then developed.
Results
The women’s main focus was on conducting business. However, in order to do so, they needed to develop a body of knowledge to deal swiftly with the issues that arose from their gendered positions in order to get to the business at hand. What was unique for these women was that they perceived themselves to be in a position of privilege and power rather than oppression during gender-related encounters, resisted attempts to place them in a position of oppression, and were acutely aware of how the contexts of their gendered positions shifted from one setting to the next. The women’s perceptions of themselves as being in gendered positions of power, their acts of resistance rather than accommodation, and the variable gendered contexts in which they learned resulted in the development of an extensive knowledge base on how to garner and wield their power.
The women generated these lessons of power on their own through a process of trial and error, and by integrating the knowledge they learned from their gendered positions in previous work settings and during their childhoods. All but one of the women believed that these were lessons that they more than likely would not have learned otherwise had they not been faced with gender-related issues in the course of conducting business. Furthermore, they felt the repertoire of skills they developed in response to their gendered positions was more extensive today compared to when they first started their business ventures, and they expected that their knowledge would continue to expand in the future as they continued to build their skills.
Learning to Garner Power
Over the years the women learned a number of ways to secure power as female entrepreneurs during gender-related encounters. The women garnered their power by (a) creating a powerful presence when they were the only woman or one of a handful of women in a group of men, (b) reading and manipulating power dynamics associated with gender to establish a power base, and (c) learning to use the old boy network to their advantage.
Creating a powerful presence. Many of the women learned the importance of making their presence known in a roomful of men, of responding quickly when their expertise was challenged by business colleagues, and of using dress to secure power and credibility.
It [having my credibility challenged] makes me more determined to be more
aggressive. If I really believe in moving from one point to the other, then I say [to
myself] okay, just do it, go for it, you’ll do it. Just that little self-talk, saying you are not going to hold me back. I worked too hard. I’ve come too far and I’m going to move past you. That little self-talk does it…. (OD)
The women also learned to garner power through dress. The women used dress as a very specific technique to establish power and credibility with customers, clients, and business associates. In some cases dress was used as an anticipatory tactic prior to a proposal presentation to offset potential assumptions that a woman could not possibly know what she is talking about in a male-dominated industry.
Well you will automatically get far more attention and there is instant
credibility that goes along with it [power dressing]. Don’t ask me why but there is. And when I do a pitch I wear, I have three or four $500 suits but they look great and I wear all my best jewelry. I make sure I have my diamond and, you know, it’s part of it. (LD)
In other cases, dress was used to establish credibility with colleagues and employees
at construction work sites. For the two women in the construction industry, “dressing the
part” with work boots and hard hat played an important role in fitting in with the guys in
the trenches and for establishing credibility as leaders of their organization with
employees. LO recounted,
For the most part I just wear the logo sweater like the rest of them [employees]. I don’t really need to be above them. I’d rather dress regular with them…. When I go to corporate meetings when buyers are there, they’re in suits. So you definitely have to come up to their level….
Reading body language to secure power. The majority of the women described the heightened awareness of gendered power dynamics they developed over the years. Their observations skills often yielded valuable information in the moment to decide what their next move would be.
When the women felt that a group of male associates or potential clients doubted
their expertise, they first silently read body language to get a sense of the power
dynamics in the room. Based on the information they ascertained from reading the body
language, they then chose appropriate strategies to shift the power base in the room to
their advantage.
What I am experiencing is, I walk in and their attitude is sort of like who is this person. And then I quickly get into my presentation and they realize I know what I’m talking about, I can answer their questions…But then I will read them. If somebody looks confused, I’ll make no qualms about stopping and saying, ‘you look confused. Am I answering, are you following what I’m saying?’ And they’ll either say, ‘yeah’ or ‘no not at all’ and it well help me revise. I’m reading their body language. Again, one of the tactics at that point is to get them to talk so I have a minute to think, okay, where to regroup. (GC)
When I want to be taken seriously…. You know, lots of direct eye contact, lots of lowered voices, not quiet but just not shrill…. I smile a lot, but then it’s quickly juxtaposed with alright back to business, almost catching people off guard. I look at a lot of people in the eye. I pick people out and talk to them, then I pick another person out and talk to them. (GC)
One woman in the construction industry offered a particularly detailed example of how intensely she observed gendered power dynamics and then used the information learned to her advantage.
As the woman you have five or six of them that you have to deal with. And he might say well I can change her. Just let me talk to her. I’ll get her to change her mind. One of them would be designated to approach the woman. You can see that. Like I said just pay attention…. But then I say I know what I’m talking about and I know why I’m here and this is the way it’s going to be. Do you get that gentlemen? This is the way it’s going to be. And he’ll say I don’t agree with that. And he can say that, by just doing that, they [the men] will come with help. And that is how they handle that reading. (OD)
One woman went on to describe how she, as did many of the other women in the study, then used the information she gained through observation to establish a power base and “work” the room to win support for her viewpoints and business decisions.
…and if I feel so intimidated by being with too many [men], I’ll single out one, one or two and I’ll work on them instead of all of them…you might see his reaction when things are said and you watch for reactions of people and when you say something whether they are paying attention to you or not. And the ones that pay attention to you are the ones that usually you can deal with…. You pick the ones that either had a reaction against one of the men or one that genuinely listened while the rest of them were just not caring. You learn to judge people… (OD)
Learning to use the old boy network to their advantage. The largest body of
knowledge produced by the women was related to the old boy network. This is not
surprising in light of the fact that this was the most commonly cited gender-related issue